Chapter 1: The Situation of Bethlehem #

¹ At the beginning of this Second Book, we will briefly describe the city of Bethlehem, which our Savior deemed worthy as the place of His birth from the Holy Virgin. According to the account of Arculf, who visited the city, Bethlehem is not especially notable for its geographical position but rather for its glorious fame, which has been proclaimed throughout the churches of all nations.

² The city is located on a narrow ridge of a mountain, surrounded on all sides by valleys. This ridge extends from east to west for about a mile. Around it, there is a level plain at the top, enclosed by a low wall without towers, which encircles the brow of this small mountain. The wall overlooks the valleys on both sides, while the homes of the inhabitants are scattered across the intervening ground within the enclosure, stretching along its length.

Chapter 2: The Place of the Nativity of the Lord, Church of St. Mary #

¹ In the far eastern corner of this city, there is a natural half-cave. At the deepest part of its interior lies the Manger of the Lord, where His mother placed the newborn Christ. Adjacent to this manger, another space is shown to visitors as the traditional site of His actual birth.

² The entire cave, known as the Manger of the Lord in Bethlehem, has been adorned inside with precious marble in honor of the Savior. Above this half-cave, over the stone chamber, the Church of St. Mary has been built. This grand structure stands above the very place where the Lord is believed to have been born.

Chapter 3: The Rock situated beyond the Wall, upon which the Water, in which He was first washed after His Birth, was poured #

¹ Here, I must briefly mention the rock located beyond the city wall, upon which the water from the first bathing of the Lord’s body after His birth was poured. This water was emptied from the vessel over the top of the wall and found its way into a natural rock basin below, which had been hollowed out by nature like a trench.

² Remarkably, from that day until the present, this rock basin has remained miraculously filled with the purest water, without any loss or diminution, through the power of our Savior. He has sustained it from the day of His birth, fulfilling the words of the prophet: “Who brought water out of the rock”. The Apostle Paul also writes: “Now that rock was Christ”, referring to the miraculous provision of water in the wilderness, when God brought forth streams from the hardest rock to quench the thirst of His people.

³ Such is the power and wisdom of God, who likewise caused water to flow from this rock in Bethlehem and has preserved it ever since. Arculf himself witnessed this with his own eyes and even washed his face in its waters.

Chapter 4: Another Church in which the Tomb of David is seen #

¹ When I asked Arculf about the tomb of King David, he gave this response: “I personally inquired carefully about the tomb of King David, where he was buried in the earth, and I visited it. It is located in the center of the church’s pavement, without any ornament covering it. It is enclosed only by a low stone fence, and a brightly shining lamp is placed above it. This church is built outside the city walls, in a nearby valley that extends northward toward the Hill of Bethlehem.”

Chapter 5: The Church within which is the Sepulchre of St. Hieronymus [Jerome] #

¹ As we inquired with the same diligence about the tomb of St. Jerome, Arculf told us: “I saw the tomb of St. Jerome, which you ask about. It is located in a church built in a valley beyond that small city, which lies at the edge of the ridge of the Hill of Bethlehem, as mentioned before, and is situated to the south of it. The tomb of St. Jerome is similar in construction to that of King David and is unadorned.”

Chapter 6: The Tombs of the Three Shepherds, around whom, when the Lord was born, the Heavenly Brightness shone; and their Church #

¹ Arculf gave us a brief account of the tombs of the shepherds around whom the heavenly light shone on the night of the Lord’s Nativity: “I visited the three tombs of the three shepherds who are buried in a church near the Tower of Gader, about a mile east of Bethlehem. It was these shepherds whom, at the birth of the Lord, the brightness of the angelic light surrounded in that place, near the Tower of the Flock. A church has been built there, which contains their tombs.”

Chapter 7: The Sepulchre of Rachel #

¹ The Book of Genesis states that Rachel was buried in Ephrath, which is in the region of Bethlehem. The Book of Places also records that Rachel’s tomb is located near the road in that area. When I inquired about this road, Arculf responded: “There is a royal road that extends southward from Aelia (Jerusalem) to Hebron. Near this road, about a few miles from Jerusalem, lies Bethlehem to the east. Rachel’s tomb is situated at the end of this road, on the right-hand side when traveling toward Hebron. The structure itself is simple, built without ornamentation, and enclosed by a stone wall. Even today, an inscription bearing her name can be seen, which, according to tradition, was placed there by her husband Jacob”.

Chapter 8: Hebron #

¹ Hebron, also known as Mamre, was once the chief city of the Philistines and inhabited by giants. David reigned there for seven years. According to the saintly Arculf, the city is no longer enclosed by walls.

² Some remnants of the ancient city, which was destroyed long ago, can still be seen in the form of scattered ruins. However, the area now consists of modest villages, fields, and farmhouses—some located within the remnants of the old walls and others beyond them, spread across the plain. A large population resides in these villages and farms.

Chapter 9: The Valley of Mambre, and the Sepulchre of the Four Patriarchs #

¹ To the east of Hebron lies a field containing a double cave, facing Mamre. This is the burial site that Abraham purchased from Ephron the Hittite as a family tomb.

² In the valley of this field, the sainted Arculf visited the site of the Sepulchre of the Four, that is, the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Adam, the first man. Unlike customary burials in other parts of the world, where feet are turned toward the east, here their feet are turned toward the south, and their heads face the north. The location of their tombs is enclosed by a low rectangular wall.

³ Adam, the first-created man, to whom God, upon his sin, immediately declared: “For you are dust, and to dust you shall return”, is set apart from the other three. He is buried near the northern side of the rectangular stone enclosure—not in a rock-hewn tomb above ground, as is customary for honored men of his lineage, but in the earth itself. Thus, he, who was made from dust and returned to dust, rests there, awaiting the resurrection along with all his descendants. In this burial, the divine sentence pronounced upon him is fulfilled.

⁴ The other three Patriarchs, following the example of the tomb of the first parent, also rest in death, covered with common dust. Their four tombs are marked by small monuments placed above them, each carved and hewn from a single stone in the shape of a basilica, designed according to the length and width of each tomb. The three adjoining tombs of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are covered by three hard white stones, shaped as previously described, while Adam’s tomb is also covered by a stone, though it is darker in color and of inferior craftsmanship. Arculf also saw the humbler and smaller monuments of the three women—Sarah, Rebekah, and Leah—who were buried in the ground. The burial field of these patriarchs is located one furlong east of the wall of the ancient city of Hebron. It is said that Hebron was founded before all the cities, not only of Palestine but even before any city in Egypt, though now it has been miserably destroyed. Let this account of the tombs of the Patriarchs suffice.

Chapter 10: The Hill and the Oak of Mambre #

¹ A mile to the north of the tombs previously described lies the grassy and flower-covered hill of Mamre, overlooking Hebron, which is situated to its south. This small mountain, known as Mamre, has a level summit, and on its northern side stands a large stone church. Within this great basilica, between two of its walls on the right side, the Oak of Mamre, remarkably, remains rooted in the earth. This tree is also called the Oak of Abraham because it was beneath it that he hospitably received the angels. St. Jerome elsewhere records that this tree existed from the beginning of the world until the reign of Emperor Constantine, though he did not state that it had completely perished. Perhaps this was because, while the vast tree was no longer visible in its former glory, a remnant of its trunk still remained, rooted in the ground and sheltered under the church’s roof, standing to the height of two men. This withered remnant, which has been cut away on all sides by axes, provides small chips that are carried to various provinces of the world, revered in memory of the oak under which that extraordinary and significant visitation of the angels occurred. Surrounding the church, which was built in honor of this sacred site, are a few dwellings of monks. But let this suffice regarding these matters—let us turn to other points.

Chapter 11: The Pine forest from where Firewood was brought to Jerusalem on Camels #

¹ As we leave Hebron and travel north for several miles, we arrive at a wide plain. Not far from the left side of the road stands a modest-sized hill covered with pines. From this pine forest, wood is transported to Jerusalem on camels for use as firewood. Arculf notes that camels are used for this purpose because carts or wagons are rarely found throughout all of Judea.

Chapter 12: Jericho #

¹ Our saintly Arculf saw the site of the city of Jericho, which Joshua destroyed after crossing the Jordan and slaying its king. In its place, Hiel of Bethel, from the tribe of Ephraim, built another city, which our Saviour deemed worthy of His presence. When the Romans besieged and attacked Jerusalem, this city was also captured and destroyed due to the treachery of its inhabitants. A third city was later built in its place, but after a long period, it too was destroyed. As Arculf recounts, some traces of its ruins can still be seen. Remarkably, despite these three successive cities being destroyed on the same site, the house of Rahab the harlot remains—she who hid the two spies sent by Joshua, concealing them in flax straw in her attic. The stone walls of her house still stand, though without a roof. The entire site of the city is now uninhabited, without even a resting place, though it still produces grain and fruit. Between the ruins of this city and the Jordan River, there are vast palm groves, scattered throughout which are numerous dwellings inhabited by wretched men of Canaanite descent.

Chapter 13: Gilgal and the twelve stones that the children of Israel took from the dried riverbed of the Jordan after crossing #

¹ Arculf, whom I have mentioned before, saw a large church in Gilgal, built on the spot where the children of Israel encamped for the first time in the land of Canaan after crossing the Jordan. In this church, the saintly Arculf also observed the twelve stones about which the Lord spoke to Joshua after the crossing of the Jordan: “Choose twelve men, one from each tribe, and command them to take from the middle of the channel of the Jordan, where the feet of the priests stood, twelve very hard stones, which you shall place on the site of your camp, where you shall pitch your tents this night”. Arculf saw these stones—six lying on the pavement on the right side of the church and six more on the north side. They were all unpolished and ordinary in appearance, yet each was so large that, as Arculf himself recounted, even two strong young men of his time could barely lift one from the ground. One stone had, by some unknown accident, been broken in two and was later rejoined using an iron clamp.

² Gilgal, where this church was built, lies east of the most ancient Jericho, on this side of the Jordan, within the territory of the tribe of Judah, about five miles from Jericho. The Tabernacle was stationed here for a long time, and it is said that the church was constructed at this very place, housing the twelve stones. It is regarded with great reverence and honor by the people of that region.

Chapter 14: The Place where our Lord was baptized by John #

¹ That sacred and revered place where the Lord was baptized by John is always covered by the waters of the Jordan River. As Arculf, who visited the site, recounts, he crossed the river back and forth to reach it. In that holy place, a large wooden cross is fixed in the river, and the water rises to the neck of the tallest man or, during times of great drought when the waters recede, up to his chest. However, when the river is in flood, the entire cross is submerged beneath the rising waters.

² The site of this cross, marking the place where the Lord was baptized, is on this side of the riverbed. A strong man with a sling could throw a stone from there to the opposite bank on the Arabian side. From the location of the cross, a stone bridge supported by arches extends to the bank, allowing people to walk across to the cross and descend the slope to the riverbank, ascending again upon their return.

³ At the edge of the river, a small square church stands on the spot where, as is said, the Lord’s garments were taken off when He was baptized. This church is elevated and built upon four stone vaults, standing above the flowing waters. It is protected above with slaked lime and supported below by vaults and arches. The church is located in the lower valley through which the Jordan River flows, while on the higher ground overlooking it, a great monastery of monks is built on the brow of the opposite hill. Enclosed within the same wall as the monastery is a church dedicated to St. John the Baptist, constructed from squared stones.

Chapter 15: The Colour of the Jordan, and the Dead Sea #

¹ According to Arculf’s account, the surface of the Jordan River appears white, like milk. As it flows into the Salt Sea, its distinct color remains visible for a long distance along its course, clearly distinguishable from the waters of the Dead Sea.

² During great storms, the Dead Sea casts salt onto the shore as its waves crash against the land. This salt is usually found in abundance along the coastline, providing a large supply not only for those living nearby but also for distant nations. The heat of the sun dries it sufficiently for use.

³ Salt is also obtained from a mountain in Sicily, where stones, when unearthed, are naturally very salty to the taste. This substance is properly called “earth salt,” whereas sea salt is usually given a different name. It is believed that the Lord drew upon this imagery when He said to the Apostles in the Gospel, “You are the salt of the earth”. Regarding this earth salt from the Sicilian mountain, the saintly Arculf, who spent some time in Sicily, confirmed by sight, taste, and touch that it was indeed the saltiest of salts.

Chapter 16: The Dead Sea continued #

¹ He also told us about the salt of the Dead Sea, which he said he had tested in the same way using the three senses mentioned earlier. He also visited the shoreline of that lake we previously mentioned, which stretches 580 furlongs in length, reaching Zoar in Arabia, and has a width of 150 furlongs near Sodom.

Chapter 17: The Fountains of the Jordan #

¹ Our Arculf also traveled to that place in the province of Phoenicia where the Jordan appears to emerge from two nearby springs at the base of Mount Lebanon—one called Jor and the other Dan—which merge to form the river’s name, Jordan. However, it should be noted that the true source of the Jordan is not at Paneum but in the district of Trachonitis, 120 furlongs from Caesarea Philippi, now called Paneas, a name taken from Mount Paneum in Trachonitis. Phiala, a spring that remains constantly full of water, feeds the Jordan through underground channels and also bubbles up in Paneum in two streams, which, as mentioned before, are known as Jor and Dan. After some distance, these streams join to form a single river, which then flows for 120 furlongs without any additional tributaries until it reaches the city of Julias. From there, it flows through the middle of the lake known as Gennesaret, and after passing through a vast desert, it finally empties into the Asphaltic Lake (the Dead Sea), where it disappears. Thus, after successfully flowing through two lakes, its course is ultimately halted by a third.

Chapter 18: The Sea of Galilee #

¹ The revered Arculf, who has been frequently mentioned, traveled around much of the Sea of Galilee, also known as the Lake of Gennesaret and the Sea of Tiberias. This body of water is closely surrounded by dense forests. The lake itself, large enough to almost deserve the title of a sea, extends approximately 140 furlongs in length and 40 furlongs in width. Its waters are fresh and suitable for drinking, as they do not receive any thick marsh sediment or turbid runoff. This purity is due to the lake being bordered on all sides by sandy shores, which help maintain its clear and high-quality water. Moreover, no other lake contains fish of finer taste or appearance.

² We have gathered these brief details about the source of the Jordan River and the Lake of Gennesaret partly from the third book of the Jewish Captivity and partly from the testimony of Arculf. He confidently recounts that he traveled in eight days from the point where the Jordan flows out of the Sea of Galilee to where it empties into the Dead Sea. This exceptionally salty sea, as Arculf himself relates, he frequently observed from the summit of the Mount of Olives.

Chapter 19: Shechem and the Well of Samaria #

¹ Arculf, the revered priest, traveled through the region of Samaria and arrived at its chief city, which is called Shechem in Hebrew and Sicima in Greek and Latin. However, it is sometimes mistakenly referred to as Sichar. Near this city, he saw a church built just outside the walls, designed in the shape of a cross, extending toward the four cardinal directions. A plan of this structure is given below.

² At the center of this church is Jacob’s Fountain, often referred to as a well. It was here that the Savior, exhausted from His journey, sat at about the sixth hour. It was also at this well that the Samaritan woman came at midday to draw water.

³

⁴ Regarding this well, the woman said to the Lord, among other things, “Lord, you have nothing to draw with, and the well is deep”. Arculf, who drank from the well, described its depth, saying: “The well I saw was forty cubits deep, equivalent to twice twenty orgyiae.” An orgyia, or cubit, is the distance from fingertip to fingertip when the arms are fully outstretched.

⁵ Shechem (also called Sichem or Sychar) was once both a priestly city and a city of refuge. It belonged to the tribe of Manasseh and was situated in the hill country of Ephraim, where the bones of Joseph were buried.

Chapter 20: A Little Fountain in the Wilderness #

¹ Arculf, whom we have frequently mentioned, saw a small, clear fountain in the desert, which is said to be the one from which St. John the Baptist drank. It is sheltered by a stone covering coated with lime.

Chapter 21: The Locusts and the Wild Honey #

¹ The Evangelists write concerning John: “Now his food was locusts and wild honey”.

² Our Arculf, while traveling through the desert where John lived, observed a very small species of locusts. Their bodies are short and slender, about the length of a finger. These locusts are easily caught in the grass, as their jumps are brief, resembling the quick hops of small frogs. When cooked in oil, they serve as food for the poor.

³ Regarding the “wild honey,” Arculf shared his experience: “In that desert, I saw trees with broad, round leaves, which are the color of milk and have a sweet taste like honey. These leaves are naturally delicate, and those who wish to eat them first rub them in their hands before consuming them. This is how wild honey is found in the woods.”

Chapter 22: The Place where the Lord blessed the Five Loaves and the Two Fishes #

¹ Our Arculf, whom we have frequently mentioned, visited this place—a grassy, level plain that has never been plowed since the day when the Savior fed five thousand men with five loaves and two fish. No buildings stand there; Arculf saw only a few stone columns lying at the edge of a fountain, said to be the one from which the people drank on that day when the Lord satisfied their hunger with such a miraculous meal.

² This place lies on the near side of the Sea of Galilee, facing the city of Tiberias, which is situated to the south.

Chapter 23: The Sea of Tiberias and Capharnaum #

¹ Travelers journeying from Jerusalem to Capernaum follow a direct route through Tiberias, as recorded by Arculf. From there, they continue along the Lake of Gennesaret, also known as the Sea of Tiberias or the Sea of Galilee. Along the way, they pass the site of the Blessing, located at a crossroads. Following the shoreline of the lake, they soon arrive at Capernaum, which lies on the coast, bordering the territories of Zebulun and Naphtali.

² Arculf, observing the city from a nearby mountain, describes it as lacking defensive walls and being confined within a narrow strip of land between the mountains and the lake. The city extends along the shoreline, running from west to east, with the mountain to the north and the lake to the south.

Chapter 24: Nazareth and its Churches #

¹ The city of Nazareth, as Arculf—who spent time there—describes, is situated on a mountain. Like Capernaum, it has no surrounding walls, but it features large stone-built houses and two prominent churches. One of these, located at the city’s center, stands upon two vaults and is built on the site where the house once stood in which our Lord and Savior was raised.

² Beneath this church, supported by two mounds and intervening arches, there is a clear and abundant spring. The people of Nazareth regularly draw water from it, and, by means of water wheels, the same spring supplies water to the church above.

³ The second church is believed to be built on the site of the house where the Archangel Gabriel appeared and spoke to the Blessed Virgin Mary, finding her alone at that moment.

⁴ This account of Nazareth comes from the saintly Arculf, who stayed there for two and a half days. However, he was unable to remain longer, as he was urged to continue his journey by a devout follower of Christ—a well-informed Burgundian hermit named Peter. This Peter, after guiding Arculf, returned by a roundabout route to the solitary place where he had previously lived.

Chapter 25: Mount Tabor #

¹ Mount Tabor is located in Galilee, about three miles from the Lake of Gennesaret (also known as the Sea of Galilee). It is remarkably round on all sides, and from its northern slope, one can look out over the lake. The mountain is lush with grass and flowers, featuring a broad, pleasant plateau at its summit, which is encircled by a vast forest.

² At the center of this level summit stands a large monastery housing many monks, with numerous individual cells. Unlike mountains that rise to a sharp peak, Mount Tabor’s summit stretches into a spacious, flat area measuring twenty-four furlongs in length, while its height reaches thirty furlongs.

³ On this elevated plain, there are also three renowned churches of considerable size. They were built in accordance with the three tabernacles that Peter mentioned when he spoke to the Lord on this holy mountain. As he rejoiced in the heavenly vision yet was overcome with fear, he said: “Lord, it is good for us to be here. If You wish, let us make three tabernacles: one for You, one for Moses, and one for Elijah”.

⁴ The monastery buildings, along with the churches and the monks’ cells, are all enclosed by a stone wall. The saintly Arculf spent one night atop this sacred mountain. However, his guide, Peter—the Burgundian Christian—did not permit him to remain longer in one hospice, urging him onward instead.

⁵ It is worth noting that the name of this renowned mountain should be written in Greek with an omicron and a long omega (Θαβώρ). In Latin, it should be spelled with an aspirate as Thabor, with the letter “o” being long. The correct spelling of the name can be found in Greek manuscripts.

Chapter 26: Damascus #

¹ According to Arculf, who spent several days there, Damascus is a great royal city situated in a vast plain. It is enclosed by an extensive circuit of walls and further strengthened by numerous towers. Outside the walls, many olive groves surround the city, while four great rivers flow through it, bringing life and prosperity to its inhabitants.

² The king of the Saracens has taken control of the city and now rules from there. A large church has been built in honor of St. John the Baptist, and in the same city, the Saracens have also constructed a place of worship, which they frequent.

Chapter 27: Tyre #

¹ Arculf, who traveled through many regions, also visited Tyre, the capital of the province of Phoenicia. In Hebrew and Syriac, it is called Tsor. According to Greek, Latin, and other historical records, Tyre was once an island with no land access. However, some accounts say that later, King Nebuchadnezzar of the Chaldeans built up mounds to facilitate an attack with projectiles and battering rams, eventually connecting the island to the mainland.

² This city was both beautiful and magnificent. Its name in Latin can be translated as “narrow,” which appropriately reflects the island’s and the city’s confined nature. Tyre is located in the land of Canaan, where the Canaanite—or Syrophoenician—woman mentioned in the Gospel lived.

³ It is worth noting that Saint Arculf’s account of the location of Tyre and Mount Tabor fully aligns with what we have excerpted above from the commentaries of Saint Jerome. Likewise, the description we have provided of Mount Tabor’s location and shape, based on Saint Arculf’s narrative, does not differ in any way from Saint Jerome’s account of the mountain’s position and its remarkable round shape. The journey from Mount Tabor to Damascus takes seven days.

Chapter 28: Alexandria, the River Nile and its Crocodiles #

¹ That great city, which was once the capital of Egypt, was formerly called No in Hebrew. It is a highly populous city, taking its name, Alexandria—a name well known and renowned among all nations—from its founder, Alexander, the King of Macedonia, who gave it both its grandeur and its name. Regarding its location, Arculf provided us with an account that aligns entirely with what we have previously read.

² Departing from Jerusalem and beginning his voyage at Joppa, Arculf traveled for forty days before reaching Alexandria. The prophet Nahum briefly mentions this city, saying: “Water surrounds her; her wealth is the sea; the waters are her wall”. To the south, Alexandria is bordered by the mouths of the Nile, while to the north, as its geographic outline clearly shows, it is positioned between the Nile and the sea, making it surrounded by water on both sides.

³ The city is situated like an enclosure between Egypt and the Great Sea, lacking a natural harbor and being difficult to approach from the outside. Its port is more challenging than most, resembling the shape of the human body—wider at the head and in the open waters but narrower in the straits, which regulate the movement of the sea and ships, allowing some degree of ventilation for the harbor. Once a ship has passed through the narrow entrance of the port, a vast expanse of open sea stretches out ahead, mirroring the form of the rest of the body.

⁴ On the right side of the harbor, there is a small island with a very tall tower. Both Greeks and Latins refer to it as the “Pharos” because of its purpose: it serves as a beacon for sailors, visible from a great distance. Before approaching the harbor—especially at night—sailors can recognize their proximity to land by the light of its flames, preventing them from being misled by darkness, running aground on rocks, or missing the entrance entirely.

⁵ To maintain this guiding light, men are stationed there to ignite torches and large piles of wood, ensuring that the flames illuminate the narrow passage, the expanse of the waves, and the winding entrance. This precaution helps prevent ships from scraping against submerged rocks or striking hidden hazards at the very threshold of the harbor. Therefore, vessels must adjust their course slightly rather than sailing in a perfectly straight line to avoid unseen dangers.

⁶ The approach to the harbor is narrower on the right side, while the left side offers a wider entry. Around the island, massive wooden beams have been systematically placed to reinforce its foundations, preventing them from eroding under the relentless force of the sea. Without these barriers, the ceaseless impact of the waves could weaken the island’s base. Consequently, the central channel—surrounded by jagged rocks and shifting masses of earth—remains perpetually turbulent. Due to the rough and unpredictable waters, navigating this passage is always risky for ships.

⁷ The port stretches over a distance of about thirty furlongs and remains secure even during the most violent storms. This is due to the protective straits and the barrier formed by the island, which deflects the force of the sea, ensuring that the inner waters remain calm, shielded from tempests and the rough waves that make entry difficult. The port’s vast size and safety are no coincidence, for it must accommodate all the goods necessary to sustain the entire city.

⁸ The immense population of the surrounding region drives a thriving trade, supplying essential goods for the city’s needs. The land itself is remarkably fertile, abundant in produce and various commodities, and it serves as a crucial supplier of grain to the entire world, along with other essential merchandise. Though the region receives little rainfall, the annual flooding of the Nile acts as a natural irrigation system, nourishing the fields as if by rain from heaven. This dual benefit—water from above and fertility from below—makes the land ideal for both navigation and agriculture.

⁹ Here, sailors and farmers alike find their livelihoods: the former navigating the waters, the latter cultivating the land. Remarkably, the soil is so rich that crops can be sown without the need for plowing, and transport is conducted without the use of wagons. The landscape is crisscrossed by canals, with houses built atop elevated platforms along the banks of the navigable rivers, as if standing on walls.

¹⁰ The Nile itself is said to be navigable as far as the city of Elephantine, but beyond that, ships can go no further due to the cataracts—turbulent cascades of water formed not by a lack of depth, but by the sheer drop in elevation, which causes the river to rush downward with great force.

¹¹ The account of the sainted Arculf regarding the geography of Alexandria and the Nile aligns with what we have learned from other sources. In fact, we have condensed excerpts from these writings and incorporated them into this description—covering aspects such as the city’s lack of a natural harbor or the challenges of its port, the presence of the island and the tower built upon it, and Alexandria’s position between the sea and the mouths of the Nile.

¹² As a result, it is beyond doubt that the city’s location, constrained between these two natural boundaries, forces it to stretch far from west to east along a narrow strip of land. Arculf’s account confirms this; he records that he entered the city at the third hour of the day in October and, due to its great length, could scarcely reach the opposite end before nightfall.

¹³ Alexandria is enclosed by an extensive circuit of walls, reinforced with frequent towers, which are strategically positioned along the banks of the Nile and the curving shoreline of the sea.

¹⁴ As one approaches the city of Alexandria from Egypt, the first notable landmark to the north is a large church where Mark the Evangelist is buried. His tomb is located before the altar at the eastern end of this rectangular church, and above it stands a marble monument in his honor.

¹⁵ Regarding Alexandria, as mentioned earlier, it was once called No before being greatly expanded by Alexander the Great. Additionally, as previously noted, it is situated near the Canopean branch of the Nile, which serves as a boundary separating Asia from both Egypt and Libya. Due to the annual flooding of the Nile, the Egyptians construct elevated embankments along the riverbanks. If these embankments are neglected by the watchmen or overwhelmed by an excessive surge of water, they fail to irrigate the land as intended and instead devastate the fields, rendering them unusable. Because of this, a significant portion of the population in Egypt’s lowlands, according to the account of the saintly Arculf—who frequently traveled by boat on the Nile—resides in elevated houses built on wooden beams above the water.

¹⁶ Arculf also describes the crocodiles that inhabit the Nile. These creatures, though not exceptionally large, are extremely voracious and powerful. If one finds a horse, donkey, or ox grazing along the riverbank, it will suddenly lunge from the water, seize the animal, and drag it beneath the surface, consuming it entirely.