Chapter 1 #

¹ Christian philosophy is often called simple, but it places great importance on shaping good behavior. It subtly conveys deeper truths about God, primarily teaching that there is a noble and ancient cause behind the existence of everything. This foundational belief is essential for anyone seriously engaging with these matters. Christians leave the more challenging and complex questions, such as the nature of moral and intellectual virtues, to ethical scholars. These scholars also develop theories about morals, passions, and emotions without providing specific ways to achieve each virtue, often offering general advice. When ordinary people hear these teachings, they tend to make significant progress in modesty and develop a pious character. This enhances their moral disposition and gradually leads them to desire what is honorable and good.

² However, this issue is split into many questions by the numerous people who follow, leading to a variety of perspectives. Just like in the field of dialectics, some individuals are more skilled and adept at handling intricate and subtle questions than others. As a result, they often emerge as the founders of different sects and heresies. These developments hinder and obscure the formation of morals. Those who aspire to lead these sects fail to reach a clear and truthful understanding, stirring up even more strife and contention among the general public. Without any rule or law to resolve these disputed issues, this ambitious rivalry spirals out of control, causing widespread damage and harm.

Chapter 2 #

¹ In these matters, as each person strives to be the first and superior with their novel opinions, they have nearly nullified the simplicity of this philosophy. One such person was Manichaeus, a Persian by birth. My teacher in his doctrine was a man named Papus, followed by Thomas and a few others. They say that Manichaeus lived during the reign of Emperor Valerian and served under Sapor, the king of the Persians. After offending Sapor in some way, he was put to death. This is the report I have received about his character and reputation from those who knew him well. He proposed two fundamental principles: God and Matter. He described God as good and declared matter to be evil. However, God surpassed matter in goodness more than matter surpassed in evil. He did not define matter as Plato did, who saw it as something that becomes everything when it receives quality and shape, calling it the all-embracing mother and nurse of all things. Nor did he define it as Aristotle did, as an element involved with form and privation. Instead, he had a different concept altogether. He defined matter as the motion within individual things that is simple and uncompounded. On God’s side are powers that are like handmaids, all of which are good. Similarly, on the side of matter are other powers, all of which are evil. Additionally, brightness, light, and superiority are associated with God, while obscurity, darkness, and inferiority are associated with matter. God also has desires, but they are all good, whereas matter’s desires are all evil.

Chapter 3 #

¹ There came a time when matter desired to reach the higher realm. When it arrived, it was captivated by the brightness and light that were with God. Matter wanted to take over this place of pre-eminence and displace God. God, in turn, contemplated how to take vengeance on matter but lacked the evil necessary to do so, as evil does not exist in God’s dwelling place. Therefore, God sent the power we call the soul into matter to completely permeate it. Eventually, when this power is separated from matter, it will lead to matter’s destruction. So, by God’s providence, the soul was mixed with matter, two unlike things combined. Through this merging, the soul became tainted by evil and now suffers the same weakness as matter. Just as the contents of a corrupted vessel often become spoiled, the soul within matter undergoes a similar change. It becomes degraded from its original nature and partakes in the evil of matter. But God had compassion on the soul and sent another power, which we call the Demiurge, the Creator of all things. When this power arrived and began the creation of the world, it separated from matter as much power as had remained free of vice and stain. From this, the sun and moon were formed first. The power that had acquired a slight and moderate stain became the stars and the expanse of heaven. Part of the matter from which the sun and moon were separated was completely expelled from the world. This material constitutes the fire that possesses the power of burning, although it is inherently dark and devoid of light, closely resembling night. However, in the remaining elements, both animal and vegetable, the divine power is unevenly mixed. Therefore, the world was created, and within it, the sun and moon were placed to oversee the birth and death of things. This was achieved by separating the divine essence from matter and transmitting it to God.

Chapter 4 #

¹ He arranged this, indeed, to provide the Demiurge or Creator with another power that might be drawn to the splendor of the sun. This phenomenon is evident, one might say, even to a blind person. During its waxing, the moon receives the virtue that is separated from matter, and it emerges full of it. But when it is full and begins to wane, it returns this virtue to the sun, which then ascends back to God. After fulfilling this task, the moon waits once more to receive from another full moon a migration of the soul to itself. Upon receiving it, the moon then allows the soul to move on to God in the same manner. This is its continuous work, throughout every era. Similarly, in the sun, an image resembling the form of a human can be observed. Matter ambitiously sought to fashion man from itself by blending all its virtues, hoping to acquire some semblance of a soul. However, it was man’s unique form that greatly contributed to his receiving a greater portion, surpassing all other animals, of the divine essence. Man is indeed the image of this divine essence, while Christ represents the intelligence. When Christ finally descended from the higher realm, He returned a significant portion of this essence to God. Finally, by being crucified, He provided understanding and demonstrated how the divine essence could be united with matter even to the point of crucifixion. Therefore, since it is the Divine will that matter should perish, they refrain from consuming living beings and instead sustain themselves with plants and other lifeless sustenance. They also avoid marriage and the rituals of Venus, as well as refraining from procreating children, so that virtue doesn’t embed itself deeper into matter through generational succession. They also refrain from seeking purification from the stain that virtue has acquired through its mingling with matter.

Chapter 5 #

¹ These are the main principles of their beliefs and thoughts. They hold the sun and moon in high regard, not as gods, but as pathways to reach God. They believe that once the divine essence is completely separated, an external fire will descend and consume both itself and any remaining matter. Some among them, who are more educated and familiar with Greek literature, draw from their own knowledge to teach us. Consider the ceremonies and mysteries, for example: the story of Bacchus, who was said to be born from a torn womb, signifies the division of divine essence into matter by the Titans, according to their belief. Similarly, the poet’s tale of the battle with the Giants suggests that even they were aware of matter’s rebellion against God.

² I won’t deny that these ideas might sway those who accept words without scrutiny. Indeed, some who have studied philosophy alongside me have been ensnared by the allure of such discourse. However, I am uncertain how to approach examining these matters. Their hypotheses lack a legitimate method that would allow for systematic examination. Furthermore, they lack principles of demonstration, making it difficult to discern the implications of their claims. Their approach to philosophy seems to be more of a speculative endeavor than a rigorous pursuit of truth. These individuals, while claiming that the Old and New Scriptures are divinely inspired, interpret them according to their own opinions. They only consider themselves refuted when something contradicts these Scriptures. While Greek philosophers rely on intermediate propositions for demonstration, these individuals consider the words of the prophets as their guide. With all these factors considered and without any demonstration accompanying the matters I mentioned earlier, providing a rational response becomes necessary. I must avoid presenting more plausible yet potentially misleading arguments. This endeavor is challenging and demanding because I must present arguments of diverse kinds. The more precise arguments may elude the notice of those who have been previously persuaded by these individuals without evidence, especially if they fall under the same influence during persuasion. They believe that these arguments stem from similar sources. Thus, it requires considerable diligence, and indeed the guidance of God, for our argument to prevail.

Chapter 6 #

¹ They establish two principles: God and Matter. If Manes distinguishes between what comes into existence and what truly exists, his supposition isn’t entirely flawed. Matter neither creates itself nor embodies two contradictory qualities by being both active and passive. Furthermore, they avoid proposing other theories about the creative cause, as it’s not permissible to discuss them. God doesn’t require matter to create things, as everything exists substantially in His mind, in terms of the potentiality for their existence. If, as he appears to suggest, the unorganized motion of things existing under God is considered matter, then he unintentionally establishes another creative cause (albeit an evil one). Furthermore, he fails to realize the implication of this, which is that if it is necessary to suppose both God and matter, then some other matter must also be attributed to God, so that each creative cause has its own subject matter. Instead of two principles, he ends up proposing four. Moreover, his distinction is remarkable. If he regards God as the good principle and intends to conceive something opposite to Him, why doesn’t he, like some Pythagoreans, posit evil as the opposite? It would be more acceptable for them to speak of two principles—good and evil—constantly in conflict, with good ultimately prevailing. If evil were to prevail, all things would perish. Therefore, matter, on its own, is neither strictly corporeal nor purely incorporeal, nor is it any specific thing. It is rather something indefinite, which becomes defined through the addition of form. For example, fire takes on the form of a pyramid, air of an octahedron, water of an icosahedron, and earth of a cube. So how can matter be equated with the disordered motion of the elements? By itself, matter does not exist, for if it were motion, it would be within that which moves. However, matter doesn’t appear to be of such a nature; rather, it seems to be the primary substrate, unorganized and from which other things emerge. Therefore, if matter is unorganized motion, was it always united with that which moves, or was it ever separate from it? If matter were ever separate from what is moved, it wouldn’t exist, as there is no motion without something being moved. However, if it has always been within what is moved, then there would again be two principles: that which moves and that which is moved. In that case, which of these two will be granted to exist as a primary cause alongside God?

Chapter 7 #

¹ An unrelated appendix is introduced into the discussion. It’s reasonable to discuss the non-existence of motion. Moreover, what exactly is the substance of motion? Is it linear or circular? Does it occur through a process of alteration or through generation and decay? Circular motion is so orderly and comprehensive that it is attributed to the arrangement of all created things. In the Manichaean system, this aspect doesn’t seem to be criticized, as it encompasses the movements of the sun and the moon, whom they claim to be the only gods they venerate. However, concerning linear motion, it also has its limit when it reaches its designated place. When something earthly touches the ground, its motion ceases completely. Similarly, every living creature and plant stops growing once it reaches its limit. Therefore, the cessation of these movements would more aptly be considered the death of matter, rather than the perpetual death envisioned by them. Additionally, the notion of motion arising from generation and corruption is incompatible with their hypothesis, as they maintain that matter is uncreated. If they attribute to matter the motion of alteration, as they call it, and the motion by which we experience changes in our sensory qualities, it’s worth examining how they arrive at this conclusion. This appears to be a fundamental aspect of their belief, as they argue that through matter, behaviors change and vice arises in the soul. In the process of alteration, it always begins anew, progresses to the middle, and ultimately reaches the end. However, if alteration is its essence, once it reaches the end, it won’t come to a halt. Instead, it will return to the beginning through the same path, and repeat the cycle, endlessly. For example, if α and γ undergo alteration, and the midpoint is β, α, when changed, will reach β, and then proceed to γ. Similarly, returning from the extreme γ to β, it will eventually reach α again, and this cycle continues indefinitely. For instance, in the transition from black, the middle point is dun, and the extreme is white. Conversely, in the reverse direction, from white to dun, and then to black again. The cycle repeats, starting once more from white and following the same pattern.

Chapter 8 #

¹ Is matter, concerning alteration, an evil cause? It can be demonstrated that it is neither inherently more evil nor good. If the change begins from evil, it progresses towards good through that which is neutral. Conversely, if the alteration starts from good, it still passes through a neutral stage. Whether the motion moves toward one extreme or the other, the process remains consistent, as demonstrated extensively. All motion pertains to quantity, while quality serves as the guide in virtue and vice. We understand that these two distinctions exist in separate categories. But are God and matter the only principles, or is there something else that lies between them? If there is nothing, then these things remain separate from each other. It’s well stated that if the extremes are intermixed, there must be something intermediate to connect them.

² If there is something else, it must either be corporeal or incorporeal, introducing a third additional principle. Firstly, if we assume that both God and matter are entirely incorporeal, such that neither exists within the other except as grammar exists within the soul, attributing this to both God and matter is nonsensical. But if, as some suggest, one of these additional principles is a vacuum, it poses a problem. The vacuum, they say, surrounds this universe, yet it lacks substance because a vacuum’s substance is nothing. However, considering them as accidents is implausible. Firstly, it’s impossible because something lacking substance cannot exist in any place, as substance serves as the foundation for accidents. If both are bodies, then they must either both be heavy, light, or intermediate, or one must be heavy while the other is light or intermediate. If both are heavy, then they must be the same among light and intermediate things. If they alternate, then one will be entirely distinct from the other. This is because what is heavy occupies one place, what is intermediate occupies another, and what is light occupies yet another. One principle encompasses the superior, another the inferior, and the third the middle. In every spherical figure, the inferior part is the middle, as the distance from it to all the higher parts, including the topmost surface, is equal in all directions. Additionally, all heavy bodies are drawn towards it from all sides. Hence, it amuses me to hear that matter, inherently disorderly in its motion, somehow made its way to the realm of God, or to light and brightness, and the like. If one is corporeal and the other is incorporeal, firstly, only the corporeal one is capable of motion. If they are not intermingled, each remains separate from the other according to its inherent nature. However, if one is mixed with the other, they would constitute either mind, soul, or accident. This is the only way incorporeal things can be mixed with bodies.

Chapter 9 #

¹ But how and for what reason was matter brought to the realm of God? By its very nature, matter is associated with lower places and darkness, according to their beliefs, while upper regions and light are contrary to its nature. Hence, a supernatural motion is attributed to it, akin to what happens when a person throws a stone or a lump of earth upwards. In this scenario, the object is lifted momentarily by the thrower’s force, but upon reaching the upper regions, it falls back to its original place. So, who then has raised matter to the upper region? On its own, matter wouldn’t be moved by the motion inherent to it. Therefore, some external force must be applied to lift it up, similar to what happens with a stone or lump of earth. However, they attribute nothing else to matter except God. Hence, it’s evident from their argument that, according to them, God forcibly and out of necessity lifted matter up to Himself. If matter is evil, then its desires are inherently evil. However, the desire for evil is evil, while the desire for good is entirely good. Therefore, if matter has desired brightness and light, its desire is not inherently bad. It’s akin to a person living in vice who later desires virtue; their desire for virtue is not wrong. Conversely, it’s not innocent for a good person to desire evil. It’s as absurd as suggesting that God desires the evils associated with matter. The good things of God are not to be equated with material wealth like large estates and vast quantities of gold, which diminish in the possession of the owner when transferred to another. If we must form an image of these things in the mind, one might consider wisdom and knowledge as examples. Just as wisdom and knowledge do not diminish, and someone who possesses them does not experience loss if another shares in them, similarly, it’s unreasonable to think that God begrudges matter the desire for what is good, if indeed we accept that it desires it.

Chapter 10 #

¹ Moreover, they exceed the mythologists in their tales. These include stories where Coelus suffers mutilation, or idle tales of plots against Saturn by his son to usurp sovereignty. There are also myths where Saturn devours his sons and is thwarted by a stone passed off as a child. How are the things they propose any different from those myths? They openly speak of the war between God and matter, not in a mythological sense like Homer in the Iliad, where he portrays Jupiter rejoicing in the strife and war among the gods, symbolizing the unequal elements of the world, each fitting into the other and either conquering or being conquered. I mentioned this because I know that people of this sort, when they lack solid evidence, gather passages from poems and use them to support their own views. This wouldn’t happen if they had only read what they encountered with some reflection. When all evil is expelled from the realm of the gods, surely envy and jealousy should have been eliminated as well. However, these individuals attribute such qualities to God when they claim that God formed plans against matter because it desired good. But with what means could God have sought vengeance against matter, considering that all such negative traits should have been absent from the divine realm? I believe it’s more accurate to say that God has a simple nature than what they propose. Expressing this concept isn’t easy, just like with other complex ideas. It can’t be demonstrated simply with words alone; it requires a lot of instruction and effort. We all understand that anger, rage, and the desire for revenge against matter are emotions experienced by someone who is agitated. These emotions are of a kind that would never afflict a virtuous person, let alone be associated with the Absolute Good.

Chapter 11 #

¹ Our discussion returns to other matters. They claim that God infused virtue into matter, so it’s worth considering whether this virtue, insofar as it relates to goodness, is lesser or equal to God. If it’s lesser, what is the reason? Things that belong to God cannot have any connection with matter. However, goodness is exclusively associated with God, while evil is solely attributed to material existence. Yet, if matter is seen as equal to God, why does God, like a ruler, give commands while matter seems to carry them out involuntarily? Furthermore, in considering matter, we should explore whether virtues hold the same or less power over evil. If the virtues indeed have less influence, then they are inherently less evil. It is through association with the good that they acquire this quality. With two evils present, the lesser one clearly achieves its state by aligning with the good. However, they don’t leave any goodness within matter. This raises another question: If some other virtue surpasses the prevailing evil within matter, it then becomes the dominant principle. Because the more evil aspect will inevitably reign within its own realm.

Chapter 12 #

¹ The claim that God infused virtue into matter is made without evidence, lacking in any sense of probability. However, it’s reasonable to seek an explanation for this. They argue that this was done so that evil might be eradicated entirely, and all things might become good. It was deemed necessary for virtue to be entwined with evil, akin to athletes locked in a fierce embrace, triumphing over their foes. This was aimed at ultimately eradicating evil by conquering it. However, personally, I believe it would have been more dignified and befitting of God’s excellence to have eradicated matter altogether from the outset of creation. I think they couldn’t entertain this idea because there’s a pre-existing notion of evil, which they term as matter. Yet, it’s equally implausible to suggest that things could cease to exist as they are, just to accommodate the notion that some could transform into something worse. It’s crucial to acknowledge this, as the current state of things has experienced some form of decline, allowing us to foster better hopes for the future. A fitting response has been given to Zeno of Citium’s belief that the world would be consumed by fire: “Everything possessing fuel will continue to burn until it consumes all; since the sun is fire, won’t it consume all it touches?” Hence, he deduced, as he supposed, that the universe would meet its end in flames. However, someone witty reportedly retorted, “But I have witnessed, yesterday, the year before, and for a long time now, that the sun remains unharmed; and it’s reasonable to expect this to continue gradually, leading us to believe that eventually, the entire universe will be engulfed in flames.” To the teachings of Manichaeus, which lack substantiation, I believe the same response applies: there hasn’t been any decrease in the current state of affairs. What existed in the time of the first humans, when brother turned against brother, persists today: the same conflicts, and even more diverse desires. It would be logical to assume that these things, if not completely eradicated, would at least diminish if we anticipate their eventual cessation. However, as they continue to produce the same outcomes, what can we reasonably expect from them in the future?

Chapter 13 #

¹ But what does he consider evil? There’s nothing lacking in the sun and moon, but regarding the heavens and stars, whether he believes there’s something problematic about them, and if so, what it is, is what we should examine next. But according to them, irregularity and disorderly motion are evil. However, these celestial bodies always move in a consistent and orderly manner. No one can blame any of the planets for delaying in the zodiac beyond their fixed period, nor can anyone criticize the fixed stars for not staying in their positions. The fixed stars revolve equally around the world, moving backward by one step every hundred years. But on Earth, if he criticizes the rough terrain or if sailors complain about sea storms, it’s important to note that these things also have some good in them. For instance, if nothing grew on Earth, all animals would soon die. This would then return much of the virtue mixed with matter back to God, and there would be a need for many moons to accommodate the great multitude arriving suddenly. They hold the same view regarding the sea. They believe it is a stroke of unexpected luck to perish, as it allows those who die to take the quickest path to God. They greatly honor wars, famines, and everything else that leads to the destruction of life. For everything that causes good should be honored. These events—wars, famines, and other forms of destruction—are considered causes of good because they transmit the virtue of those who perish to God.

Chapter 14 #

¹ It seems we have been unaware that the Egyptians rightly worship the crocodile, lion, and wolf because these animals, being stronger than others, devour and completely destroy their prey. They also worship the eagle and hawk for a similar reason, as these birds hunt and kill weaker animals both in the air and on the ground. Perhaps, according to them, man is held in special honor for this reason: through his clever inventions and skills, he can subdue most animals. And to ensure he also shares in this cycle, he becomes food for other creatures. Therefore, they believe it is absurd for small and common seeds to produce something great. In their opinion, it is much more fitting for these things to be destroyed by God, so that the divine virtue can be quickly freed from the troubles of living in this world. But what shall we say about lust, injustice, and similar vices, Manichaeus will ask. Surely, discipline and law address these issues. Discipline employs careful foresight to prevent such vices among people, while the law imposes punishment on anyone caught committing unjust acts. But why should the earth be blamed if the farmer fails to cultivate it? The sovereignty of God, which is just, is diminished when some parts of the earth produce fruits and others do not, or when the winds, due to different causes, benefit some while others suffer harm against their will. They must surely be ignorant of the nature of contingent and necessary things. Otherwise, they wouldn’t regard such occurrences as prodigious.

Chapter 15 #

¹ Where, then, do pleasure and desire come from? These are the primary evils they speak of and detest. Matter seems to be nothing else but these. It’s evident that only animals endowed with senses experience these things, and nothing else but sentient beings perceive desire and pleasure. Plants, earth, water, or air don’t possess any perception of pleasure or pain. And perhaps demons, if indeed they are sentient beings, are pleased with the established rituals of sacrifices and are displeased when they are not offered, but such sentiments cannot be attributed to God. So those who question why animals experience pleasure and pain should first ask, why are these animals endowed with senses, or why do they require sustenance? If animals were immortal, they would be free from decay and reproduction, like the sun, moon, and stars, which also possess senses. However, such questions are beyond the control of animals and are not relevant to them. But as for humans, who have the ability to perceive, judge, and potentially become wise, they often disregard their unique capabilities once acquired.

Chapter 16 #

¹ In general, it’s worth asking these individuals: is it impossible for anyone to become good, or is it within anyone’s power? If no one is wise, what about Manichaeus himself? Setting aside the fact that he not only calls others good but also claims they can make others good, if one individual can be entirely good, what stops everyone from achieving goodness? What is possible for one is possible for all. And if one has become virtuous through certain means, then all can become so through the same means, unless it’s claimed that the greater portion of this virtue is intercepted by some individuals. So, first, why is there a need for effort in submitting to discipline (since one could become virtuous even while sleeping), or why do these individuals inspire their listeners with hopes of goodness? Even if someone is wallowing in the mire with harlots, they can still attain their true good. But if discipline, improved instruction, and diligence in acquiring virtue lead to becoming virtuous, then everyone should strive for it. This would render their oft-repeated phrase about the disorderly motion of matter meaningless. It would be more beneficial for them to acknowledge that wisdom is a tool bestowed by God upon humanity. Through wisdom, humans can gradually steer themselves towards goodness, overcoming the absurdities that arise from their desires and pleasures, which stem from their sentient nature. Indeed, if they taught this, they themselves, as teachers of virtue, would be models to emulate both in purpose and lifestyle. There would be great hope that one day, when all people become wise, evils will cease. It seems to me that Jesus took this into consideration. He gathered husbandmen, carpenters, builders, and other artisans together in a common council. Through simple and easy conversations, He not only raised their awareness of God but also instilled in them a desire for what is good.

Chapter 17 #

¹ How do they claim that God sent divine virtue into matter? If divine virtue always existed and neither God nor matter existed prior to it, then, according to Manichaeus, there are indeed three first principles. Perhaps, as we delve further, even more will appear. But if divine virtue is something adventitious, arising later, how is it devoid of matter? And if they claim it to be a part of God, they are asserting that God is composite and corporeal by this conception. Yet, this is absurd and impossible. If God fashioned divine virtue without matter, it’s surprising that neither the man himself nor his disciples considered this: if God created this virtue of His own free will (as the orthodox assert, that things subsequent to God’s existence subsist while God remains), then how is He not the author of all other things made without the necessity of any pre-existent matter? The consequences of this opinion are indeed evidently absurd. But what follows is listed next in order: was it the nature of this virtue to diffuse itself into matter? If it was contrary to its nature, how is it intermingled with matter? But if this was in accordance with its nature, then it was surely always with matter. If this is the case, how do they justify calling matter evil when it was initially intermingled with divine virtue? And how will matter be destroyed if the divine virtue, which was once mixed with it, at some point separates itself? It’s more reasonable to believe that matter preserves what is good and likely to produce further good for those to whom it is present, rather than causing destruction or other evils upon them.

Chapter 18 #

¹ This is the wise assertion they make: just as we see the body perish when the soul is separated from it, so too, when virtue leaves matter, the remaining substance, which is matter, will dissolve and perish. However, they fail to perceive that nothing existing can be destroyed into nonexistence. For what is nonexistent does not exist. When bodies disintegrate and undergo change, they experience a dissolution: a part of them goes to earth, a part to air, and a part to something else. Furthermore, they seem to forget that their doctrine states that matter is disorderly motion. It’s not reasonable to say that when virtue departs from matter, which inherently moves of itself and for which motion is essential, that matter should cease to be, especially considering that matter existed before virtue descended into it. They fail to recognize the difference: every body devoid of soul is immovable. Plants too possess a sort of vitality. Yet, within the realm of motion lies the essence of matter. It’s akin to a dissonant melody on a lyre; harmony rectifies discord, aligning every element in concord. Similarly, divine essence, when infused into the chaotic motion inherent in matter, imbues it with order, seamlessly integrating it with the divine design. I inquire, how did Manichaeus acquire the capacity to delve into these concepts, and when did he first articulate them? It’s acknowledged that he himself was a blend of matter and the virtue infused into it. So, if he uttered these assertions while submerged in the chaos of unordered motion, the viewpoint appears flawed. Alternatively, if he voiced them through the conduit of divine virtue, the doctrine remains questionable and ambiguous. For, on one hand, by virtue of the divine essence, he aligns with truth; yet, on the other hand, entangled within unordered motion, he strays into falsehood.

Chapter 19 #

¹ If it had been asserted that divine virtue both embellishes and continues to embellish matter, it would have been a far wiser assertion, conducive to inspiring faith in the teachings of Manichaeus. However, another virtue has been bestowed by God.

² What has been stated concerning the former virtue can be equally applied to this one, and all the absurdities stemming from the doctrine of their initial virtue can be similarly raised in this instance. But who would endure another round of such teachings? Why didn’t God dispatch a singular virtue capable of achieving everything? If the human intellect is so diverse, encompassing knowledge of geometry, astronomy, carpentry, and more within the same individual, then couldn’t God find one such virtue sufficient for all, eliminating the need for a first and second?

³ Why does one virtue possess the power of a creator while another assumes the role of the passive recipient, perfectly suited for blending with matter? I fail to discern the rationale behind this arrangement and the resulting imbalance which contradicts good order. If it were evil, it wouldn’t originate from the house of God. Given that God embodies the sole essence of goodness, and matter is synonymous with evil, it follows that other entities must occupy a middle ground, situated between the two extremes. However, the assertion of a distinct creator for these intermediary entities diverges from this understanding, as posited by the notion of one cause being creative while another is entwined with matter. It’s plausible that the primary antecedent cause referred to by more contemporary authors in the book “περι’ τω’ν διαφορω’ν” (Concerning Differences) aligns with this notion. According to their perspective, when the creative virtue initiated the act of world-making, a separation occurred from matter, preserving a portion of its inherent virtue even within the admixture. It’s from this preserved essence that the sun and the moon are believed to have originated. What remained, having only mildly contracted vice and evil, was fashioned into the heavens and the constellations. Lastly, the remainder, encompassed within these, took shape in a manner dictated by chance, embodying mixtures of divine virtue and matter.

Chapter 20 #

¹ I find it quite perplexing that they fail to realize they are attributing corporeality to the divine virtue, effectively dividing it into parts. Just as they assert matter to be passible and divisible throughout, why wouldn’t the divine virtue be subject to the same attributes, with the sun formed from one of its parts and the moon from another? Indeed, this is precisely what they claim as attributes of the divine virtue. However, as we previously discussed, this is characteristic of matter, which in its raw state is devoid of substance but acquires form and qualities to create everything that is divided and distinct. If, then, only the sun and the moon originate from a singular subject, the divine virtue, and these entities are distinct, why create anything else at all? However, if all things are indeed created, the logical conclusion is evident: the divine virtue is synonymous with matter, and moreover, a formable matter at that.

² If indeed nothing else apart from the sun and moon originates from the divine virtue, then what is intermingled with all things would be the essence of the sun and moon. According to this line of reasoning, each star would be a manifestation of the sun and moon, as would every individual land-dwelling creature, bird, and amphibian. However, even those who perform the most elaborate feats of illusion would likely balk at such a notion, as it appears evident to all.

Chapter 21 #

¹ If someone were to delve into the implications of what follows, the path wouldn’t seem straightforward, but rather more arduous than the path already traversed. According to their doctrine, the sun and moon remain untainted by their interaction with matter. Yet, they struggle to explain how other entities have become corrupted, contrary to their inherent nature. If, when the divine virtue existed in an absolute and isolated state, it was structured such that one portion contained goodness while another possessed a greater abundance of goodness, akin to the old tale of the centaurs—creatures with the upper body of a man and the lower body of a horse, both good animals but with man considered superior—then it follows that within the divine virtue, one portion is superior and more excellent, while the other occupies a secondary and inferior position. Likewise, concerning matter, one portion seems to harbor an excess of evil, while others exhibit distinct characteristics. The discourse concerning these other aspects would naturally differ accordingly. It’s conceivable that from the outset, the sun and moon, with discerning and prudent foresight, selected portions of matter that were less tainted with evil for their admixture, ensuring they could retain their inherent perfection and virtue. As time passed, and the evils waned in potency, they gradually drew out a surplus from the reservoir of good, while the remaining parts of matter decayed. This process occurred not without some degree of foresight, yet not uniformly, as each entity was allocated a portion of the evil inherent in matter commensurate with its quantity. Since they assert nothing of a different nature concerning this virtue but consistently maintain its uniformity and sameness throughout, their argument appears improbable. For in the process of admixture, one part remains pure and incorrupt, while the other inevitably acquires a share of evil.

Chapter 22 #

¹ Now, they say that the sun and the moon having by degrees separated the divine virtue from matter, transmit it to God. But if they had spent even a little time studying astronomy, they would not have fallen into these misconceptions. They would know that the moon, which some believe has no light of its own, actually receives its light from the sun. They would also understand that the moon’s phases depend on its distance from the sun, and that a full moon occurs when the moon is 180 degrees away from the sun. It is in conjunction when it is in the same degree as the sun. Isn’t it remarkable how there can be so many different types of souls from such a variety of beings? There is the soul of the world itself, as well as the souls of animals, plants, nymphs, and demons. Among these, the souls of birds, land animals, and amphibious creatures are distinct in appearance. Yet, the moon always presents the same face to us. And what can we say about the continuity of this body? When the moon is half-full, it appears as a semicircle, and the same happens during its third quarter. So, how and in what form are souls assumed into the moon? If they are as light as fire, they would likely ascend not only to the moon but even higher, continually. But if they are heavy, it wouldn’t be possible for them to reach the moon at all. And why is it that souls that first arrive at the moon do not immediately go to the sun, but instead wait for the full moon until the rest of the souls arrive? When the moon, after being full, wanes, where does the divine essence go during that time? Until the moon, emptied of the previous souls like a deserted city, receives a new influx of souls. Shouldn’t there be a designated place on Earth, in the clouds, or somewhere else where these gathered souls wait to move to the moon? But this brings up another question: why doesn’t the moon fill up with souls immediately? Why does the moon wait another fifteen days? It is equally astonishing that the moon has never become full in less than fifteen days, even during great floods like those of Deucalion or Phoroneus, when almost everything on Earth perished and a great amount of divine essence was separated from matter. Moreover, one must consider the factors of fertility, barrenness, and destruction of generations. Since these events do not follow a strict order, there is no reason why the phases of the full moon and the waning moon should be so rigorously observed.

Chapter 23 #

¹ This should not be taken lightly. If the divine essence within matter is infinite, then the actions of the sun and moon cannot diminish it, because what remains after they have drawn from it is still infinite. However, if the divine essence is finite, its reduction would be noticeable in the world according to the amount taken. Yet, everything remains unchanged. Now, how can these ideas not surpass our understanding with their incredibility, when they claim that man was created and shaped after the image of matter seen in the sun? Images are supposed to reflect their originals. But if man’s image is in the sun, where is the original model that his image is based on? Surely, they cannot claim that man himself is the original or divine essence, as they confuse this essence with matter. They claim that the image is seen in the sun, which they believe was formed later from the secretion of matter. They cannot identify the creative cause of all things, as they believe this cause was sent to protect the divine essence. Consequently, they attribute everything to the sun, arguing that its presence causes the sun and moon to separate from matter. Furthermore, they claim that the image is seen in the star, yet they argue that matter shaped man. But in what manner and by what means could matter possibly fashion him? According to their view, man becomes the empty form of an empty form, devoid of real existence. It is difficult to comprehend how man can be the product of matter, especially since reason and sense do not belong to the matter they assume. According to their beliefs, what is man? Is he a combination of soul and body? Or is he something else, perhaps superior to the soul entirely, such as the mind? But if he is the mind, how can the more perfect and superior part be the product of something inferior? Alternatively, if he is the soul (which they claim is divine essence), how can they subject this divine essence, taken from God, to the creative influence of matter? If they argue that man consists solely of the body, they must recall that the body alone is inert, while they claim that the essence of matter is motion. Moreover, they do not believe that anything by its own nature is drawn to matter. It is not logical to conclude that something composed of these elements is the result of them. Indeed, it seems indisputable that what is fashioned by someone is inferior to its creator. Indeed, in this way, the world would be inferior to its Creator or Maker, and works of art would be inferior to the artisan. Therefore, if man is the product of matter, he must surely be inferior to it. However, humans do not consider anything inferior to matter, and it is illogical to suppose that divine essence should be mixed with matter, which is inferior to it. Yet, the concepts they assert almost as a concession or by some sort of dispensation, they do not seem to grasp fully. What is their reasoning behind the belief that matter has confined the image of God to human substance? Why isn’t the image itself, like in a mirror, sufficient for man to appear? Or, since the sun itself is capable of originating and destroying all things, has it mirrored an image in the creation process? And if so, from which of its properties or capabilities did it do so? Was it with the divine virtue which was mingled with it, so that the divine virtue should have the office of an instrument in respect of matter? Is it by unordered motion that he will thus give matter a form? But all like things, in exquisite and accurate order, by imitating, attain their end. For they do not suppose that a house, or a ship, or any other product of art, is effected by disorder; nor a statue which art has fashioned to imitate man. Was it with the divine essence mixed within it, so that the divine essence acts as an instrument regarding matter? Is it through chaotic motion that it would then give form to matter? But all things, particularly those meticulously and precisely crafted, achieve their purpose by imitation. They do not suggest that a house, a ship, or any other work of art is created through disorder, nor a statue crafted to resemble a man.

Chapter 24 #

¹ They do not acknowledge Christ, yet they mention Him. However, they attribute to the Word, signifying His sacred person, a meaning other than the one it rightly holds, saying that He is mind. But if, when they speak of Him as the known and the knower, and equate wisdom with these concepts, they align with the teachings of the Church doctors, why then do they reject all that is termed ancient history? Let’s examine whether they consider Christ to be something incidental, new, and external, as some believe. According to this view, which seems quite plausible, Christ entered the body in the seventh year when the faculties of perception became distinct. However, if Christ is considered to be the mind, as they suggest, then He would be both Christ and not Christ simultaneously. For before the mind and senses entered, He did not exist. But if Christ, as they claim, is the mind, then the mind enters into Him, who already exists, and according to their view, He becomes the mind once more. Therefore, Christ is both existing and not existing simultaneously. However, according to the more accepted faction among them, if the mind encompasses all things that exist, since they posit that matter is uncreated and exists alongside God, they consider this primary mind and matter to be Christ. In their understanding, if Christ is the mind encompassing all things, and matter is one of those existing things, itself uncreated, then Christ is identified with both the mind and matter.

² They claim that it was merely an appearance, a semblance, through which the divine essence in matter was affixed to the cross, asserting that He Himself did not truly undergo this punishment, as it would be impossible for Him to suffer in such a way. Manichaeus himself took up this teaching in a book dedicated to the subject, suggesting that the divine essence was temporarily bound within matter and then separated from it again. They invent various explanations for this process. The idea that He gave Himself up for the forgiveness of sins, as taught in the Church’s doctrine, gains acceptance among the common people. This concept also finds parallels in Greek histories, which recount instances of individuals sacrificing themselves for the safety of their fellow countrymen. This doctrine finds an example in Jewish history, where the son of Abraham is prepared as a sacrifice to God. However, to suggest that Christ was subjected to His passion solely for the sake of display shows great ignorance, for the Word serves as God’s representative to teach and reveal to us genuine truths.

Chapter 25 #

¹ They also refrain from consuming living beings. If their reason for abstaining were different, it wouldn’t warrant much scrutiny. However, if they abstain because they believe the divine essence is more or less present in living beings, then their rationale is absurd. If plants are considered more material, it is unreasonable to use something inferior for nourishment and sustenance. If there is indeed more divine essence in living beings, how can such things be considered useful as food when the soul’s capacity for nourishment and reproduction is more material? Moreover, in abstaining from marriage and sexual relations, fearing that the divine essence might become more entwined with matter through procreation, I am curious about how they reconcile this belief with their own existence. If the providence of God alone cannot sufficiently separate the divine essence from matter through generations and through the eternal existence of certain things, what effect can the cunning and subtlety of Manichaeus have in achieving this goal? Surely, God does not require the assistance of giants to expedite the retreat of the divine essence from matter by eliminating generations. The tales of the giants in poetry are clearly myths and not to be taken literally. Those who discuss such matters often present them in allegorical terms, using a kind of fable to veil the grandeur of their discourse. For example, in Jewish history, when it is recounted that angels came down to have intercourse with the daughters of men, this statement symbolizes the descent of the soul’s nutritive powers from heaven to earth. The poets who depict the emergence of beings in full armor from the earth, only to perish shortly after rebelling against the gods, do so to suggest the frail and fleeting nature of the body. They embellish their poetry in this manner to captivate the soul with the novelty of the event. These individuals, lacking understanding of such allegorical interpretations, eagerly seize upon any fallacy they can find from any source, employing all their cunning to undermine truth by any means necessary.

Chapter 26 #

¹ The fire, possessing the power to burn but lacking light, which supposedly exists outside the world, where does it reside? If it exists within the world, why does the world remain unharmed until now? If it is destined to destroy the world at some point, by approaching it, it should already be in contact with it. However, if it is separate from the world, perhaps in its own lofty region, what event in the future will cause it to descend upon the world? How will it depart from its own realm, and by what means and compulsion? Moreover, what kind of fire can exist without fuel, and how can something moist serve as fuel for it? These questions, unless they pertain to the realm of physiology, may not be relevant to our current discussion. However, it is evident from what has been said previously. The fire existing outside the world is essentially what they refer to as matter. This is because the sun and the moon, being the purest manifestations of divine essence, are completely separate from this fire, with none of their essence remaining within it. This fire represents matter itself, in its absolute and inherent form, entirely devoid of any mixture with divine essence. Therefore, when the world has been depleted of all the divine essence that opposes it, and only this kind of fire remains, how will this fire destroy anything or be consumed by it? I fail to see how corruption can occur from something that is similar. Whatever matter becomes when divine essence is separated from it, it was already in that state before divine essence was mixed with it. If matter is destined to perish when deprived of divine essence, why did it not perish before coming into contact with divine essence or any creative energy? Was it so that matter might perish in succession, ad infinitum? And what purpose does this serve? For something that did not have a place from the initial volition, how could it have a place in a subsequent one? Or what reason would God have to delay things, which even in the case of a human being, does not seem appropriate? Regarding those who contemplate the impossible, it’s said that they often do not desire what is possible. They speak of God transcending substance, portraying Him as some new material, not the kind that intelligent individuals typically associate with Him. Instead, they describe a substance that either does not exist at all or is the extreme of all things, something that the human mind struggles to conceive. Is this fire, devoid of light, more powerful than matter, which is to be left desolate by divine essence, or is it less powerful? If it is less powerful, how will it overcome that which is more powerful? But if it is more powerful, it should be able to draw matter back to itself, since they are of the same nature. However, it will not destroy matter, just as the Nile does not swallow up the streams that diverge from it.