Preface #

¹ To the most glorious king Ceolwulf. Bede, the servant of Christ and Priest.

² I previously, at your request, most willingly sent you the Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, which I had recently published, so that you might read and judge it; and now I send it again so that it may be transcribed and studied more thoroughly at your leisure. I greatly rejoice in the sincerity and zeal with which you not only diligently listen to the words of Holy Scripture, but also take pains to acquaint yourself with the deeds and sayings of men of renown in times past, especially those of our own nation.

³ For when history records good things about good men, the attentive listener is stirred to imitate what is good; and if it recounts evil things about wicked men, nonetheless, the conscientious and devout listener or reader, avoiding what is harmful and wrong, is all the more fervently inspired to do those things which he knows to be good and pleasing to God. And since you have carefully observed this, you desire that the said history should be more fully known to yourself and to those whom Divine Authority has placed under your governance, out of your great concern for the common good.

⁴ But so that I may remove all occasion for doubt regarding what I have written, both for yourself and for other readers or listeners of this history, I will take care to show you briefly from which authors I have chiefly derived this account.

⁵ My principal authority and aid in this work was the most learned and reverend Abbot Albinus, who had been educated in the Church of Canterbury under those venerable and erudite men, Archbishop Theodore of blessed memory and Abbot Hadrian. Through Nothelm, the pious priest of the Church of London, he transmitted to me—either in writing or by the spoken word of the same Nothelm—all that he deemed worthy of remembrance concerning what had been done in the province of Kent and the neighboring regions by the disciples of the blessed Pope Gregory, as he had learned it either from written records or from the traditions of his predecessors.

⁶ The same Nothelm later traveled to Rome and, with the permission of the present Pope Gregory, searched the archives of the Holy Roman Church. There, he discovered some letters of the blessed Pope Gregory, as well as of other popes; and upon his return, by the advice of the aforesaid most reverend father Albinus, he brought them to me to be included in my history. Thus, from the beginning of this volume up to the time when the English nation received the faith of Christ, we have gathered material from the writings of earlier men, collected from various sources. But from that time until the present, the events that took place in the Church of Canterbury under the disciples of the blessed Pope Gregory or their successors, and under which kings these events occurred, have been conveyed to us, as stated, by Nothelm through the diligence of the aforementioned Abbot Albinus. They also provided me with information regarding the bishops and the kings under whom the provinces of the East and West Saxons, as well as those of the East Angles and the Northumbrians, received the grace of the Gospel.

⁷ In short, I was chiefly encouraged to undertake this work by the exhortations of the same Albinus. Likewise, Daniel, the most reverend Bishop of the West Saxons, who is still living, communicated to me in writing certain details concerning the ecclesiastical history of that province, as well as the neighboring province of the South Saxons and the Isle of Wight.

⁸ As for how the province of the Mercians, which had previously not known the faith of Christ, was brought to it through the ministry of those holy priests of Christ, Cedd and Ceadda, and how the province of the East Saxons regained the faith after having abandoned it, as well as how these fathers lived and died, we learned from the brethren of the monastery founded by them, which is called Laestingaeu.

⁹ The ecclesiastical events that took place in the province of the East Angles became known to us partly from the writings and traditions of earlier men and partly from the account of the most reverend Abbot Esi. What was done concerning the faith of Christ and the episcopal succession in the province of Lindsey, we learned either from the letters of the most reverend prelate Cynibert or from the oral testimony of other credible persons. However, regarding the affairs of the Church in various parts of the province of Northumbria, from the time they received the faith of Christ up to the present, I did not rely on the authority of a single individual but rather on the trustworthy testimony of countless witnesses who either knew or remembered these events, in addition to what I had personally observed. It should also be noted that what I have written concerning our most holy father, Bishop Cuthbert, whether in this volume or in my account of his life and deeds, I have taken partly from what was written about him by the brethren of the Church of Lindisfarne, accepting their statements without hesitation, while also ensuring to add those things of which I had personal knowledge through the faithful testimony of reliable informants. I humbly entreat the reader that if anything in these writings is found not to be in accordance with the truth, he will not attribute the fault to me; for, as the true rule of history demands, withholding nothing, I have endeavored to record such matters as I could gather from common report for the instruction of posterity.

¹⁰ Moreover, I beseech all who shall hear or read this history of our nation to offer frequent intercessions to the throne of Grace for my infirmities, both of mind and body. And I further pray that, in recompense for the labor with which I have recorded in the various provinces and principal places those events that I deemed worthy of note and of interest to their inhabitants, I may receive as my reward the benefit of their pious prayers.

Chapter 1 #

¹ Britain, an island in the Atlantic formerly known as Albion, lies to the northwest, facing—though at a considerable distance—the coasts of Germany, France, and Spain, which make up the greater part of Europe. It extends 800 miles in length toward the north and is 200 miles in breadth, except where several promontories extend further, increasing its total circumference to 4,875 miles. To the south lies Belgic Gaul, from whose nearest shore there is an easy passage from the city of Rutubi Portus, now corrupted by the English into Reptacaestir. The distance from there across the sea to Gessoriacum, the nearest shore in the territory of the Morini, is fifty miles, or, as some writers state, 450 furlongs. On the other side of the island, where it opens upon the boundless ocean, lie the islands known as the Orcades.

² Britain is rich in grain and trees and is well suited for the feeding of cattle and beasts of burden. In some places, it also produces vines and has an abundance of land and waterfowl of various kinds. It is especially notable for its rivers, which are full of fish, and for its plentiful springs. It has a great abundance of salmon and eels, and seals are frequently taken, as well as dolphins and whales. There are also many kinds of shellfish, such as mussels, in which are often found excellent pearls of various colors—red, purple, violet, and green—but chiefly white. The island also has a great supply of snails, from which the scarlet dye is made—a most beautiful red that never fades under the heat of the sun or exposure to rain; rather, the older it becomes, the more beautiful it appears. Britain also has both salt and hot springs, from which flow rivers that provide hot baths suitable for people of all ages and both sexes, in separate places according to their needs. For, as St. Basil says, water takes on the quality of heat when it passes over certain metals and becomes not only hot but scalding.

³ Britain is also rich in veins of metals, including copper, iron, lead, and silver. It produces a great quantity of excellent jet, which is black and lustrous, burns when placed in the fire, and, when ignited, repels serpents. When warmed by rubbing, it attracts whatever is applied to it, much like amber. The island was once distinguished by twenty-eight renowned cities, in addition to countless forts, all of which were strongly secured with walls, towers, gates, and bars. And because it lies almost under the North Pole, the summer nights remain light, so that at midnight observers often find it difficult to determine whether the twilight of evening still lingers or that of morning has begun, since in the northern regions the sun returns to the east at night without sinking far beneath the earth. For this reason, the days in summer are exceedingly long, while in winter, by contrast, the nights extend to eighteen hours, as the sun then withdraws into the southern regions. Likewise, the summer nights are very short, and the winter days last only six equinoctial hours. In contrast, in Armenia, Macedonia, Italy, and other countries of the same latitude, the longest day or night extends only to fifteen hours, while the shortest is nine.

⁴ At present, in accordance with the number of books in which the Divine Law was written, there are five languages spoken in the island by different nations, all engaged in the study and confession of the same knowledge, which is of the highest truth and true sublimity—namely, English, British, Scottish, Pictish, and Latin, the last of which has become common to all through the study of the Scriptures. However, in the beginning, this island had no other inhabitants but the Britons, from whom it took its name. It is said that they came over to Britain from Armorica and settled in the southern parts of the land. Advancing from the south, they occupied the greater part of the island when it happened that the nation of the Picts, setting sail from Scythia, as is reported, in a few warships, was driven by the winds beyond the boundaries of Britain and arrived on the northern shores of Ireland.

⁵ There, finding the nation of the Scots, the Picts begged to be allowed to settle among them but were unable to obtain their request. Ireland, the largest island next to Britain, lies to the west of it. Though it is shorter than Britain toward the north, it extends much farther to the south, lying opposite the northern part of Spain, though a wide sea separates them. The Picts, as has been said, arrived by sea in this island and sought a place where they might settle. The Scots replied that the island could not accommodate both peoples, but added, “We can give you good counsel whereby you may know what to do. We know of another island not far from ours, to the east, which we often see in the distance on clear days. If you go there, you may obtain settlements, and if any should oppose you, we will help you.”

⁶ The Picts, accordingly, sailed over to Britain and began to inhabit the northern parts, while the Britons had already taken possession of the south. However, the Picts had no wives and asked the Scots for them. The Scots refused to grant them on any other condition than that, in any matter of succession, they should choose their king from the female royal line rather than the male. This custom, as is well known, has been observed among the Picts to this day.

⁷ In time, besides the Britons and the Picts, Britain received a third nation—the Scots—who, migrating from Ireland under their leader Reuda, secured for themselves, either by fair means or by force of arms, those settlements among the Picts that they still hold. From the name of their commander, they are to this day called Dalreudini, for in their language, Dal means a portion or part.

⁸ Ireland is broader than Britain and enjoys a much healthier and milder climate, for snow rarely remains on the ground for more than three days. No one there makes hay in the summer for winter provision or builds stables for beasts of burden. No reptiles are found in the land, and no snake can live there; for though snakes are often brought over from Britain, as soon as the ship approaches the shore and they are exposed to the air, they perish. On the contrary, nearly everything in the island is effective against poison. Indeed, it is well known that when men have been bitten by serpents, the scrapings of book leaves brought from Ireland, when mixed with water and given to drink, have immediately neutralized the spreading poison and reduced the swelling.

⁹ The island abounds in milk and honey, nor is there any shortage of vines, fish, or fowl. It is also well known for the hunting of stags and roe deer. It is properly the homeland of the Scots, who, as previously mentioned, migrated from there and became the third nation in Britain, alongside the Britons and the Picts.

¹⁰ A vast gulf of the sea once separated the Britons from the Picts, extending deep into the land from the west. To this day, a stronghold of the Britons, called Alcluith, stands there. The Scots, upon arriving on the northern side of this bay, settled in that region.

Chapter 2 #

¹ Britain had never been visited by the Romans and was entirely unknown to them until the time of Caius Julius Caesar, who, in the year 693 after the founding of Rome, and sixty years before the Incarnation of our Lord, served as consul alongside Lucius Bibulus. While waging war against the Germans and Gauls, who were separated only by the river Rhine, he arrived in the province of the Morini, from where the shortest passage to Britain lies. There, after assembling around eighty transport and fast-sailing ships, he crossed over to Britain. However, he was first severely challenged in battle and then caught in a storm, losing a large portion of his fleet, a significant number of infantry, and nearly all his cavalry.

² Returning to Gaul, he placed his legions in winter quarters and ordered the construction of six hundred ships of both types. With this fleet, he crossed over again early in the spring, but while advancing with his army against the enemy, his ships, anchored offshore, were caught in a storm. Many were either dashed against each other or driven onto the sandbanks and wrecked, with forty vessels lost and the rest only repaired with great effort. At the first encounter, Caesar’s cavalry was defeated by the Britons, and Labienus, the tribune, was slain. In a second engagement, though at great risk to his men, Caesar overcame the Britons and put them to flight.

³ He then advanced to the river Thames, where a large force of Britons, under the command of Cassobellaunus, had taken position on the opposite bank. They had reinforced the riverbank and almost the entire ford with sharp stakes hidden beneath the water—remnants of which, about the thickness of a man’s thigh, encased in lead, and immovably fixed into the riverbed, can still be seen today. When the Romans discovered and avoided this trap, the Britons, unable to withstand the legions’ charge, retreated into the woods, from where they repeatedly harassed the Romans with sudden attacks.

⁴ Meanwhile, the powerful state of the Trinovantes, led by Androgius, surrendered to Caesar, offering forty hostages. Many other cities followed their example and made treaties with the Romans. With their guidance, Caesar eventually captured the town of Cassobellaunus after fierce fighting. The town, located between two marshes, was fortified by dense woods and well supplied with provisions. After this, Caesar returned from Britain to Gaul, but no sooner had he placed his legions in winter quarters than he found himself beset on all sides by wars and sudden uprisings.

Chapter 3 #

¹ In the year 798 from the founding of Rome, Claudius, the fourth emperor after Augustus, eager to prove himself a ruler who benefited the republic and driven by a desire for war and conquest, launched an expedition into Britain. The island had risen in rebellion after the Romans refused to return certain deserters. Before him, only Julius Caesar had dared to set foot on Britain. Claudius crossed over and, within just a few days, without any battle or bloodshed, most of the island was surrendered to him. He also brought the Orcades, which lie in the ocean beyond Britain, under Roman rule.

² Returning to Rome six months after his departure, he granted his son the title Britannicus. This campaign was concluded in the fourth year of his reign, which was the forty-sixth year after the Incarnation of our Lord. In that same year, a severe famine occurred in Syria, which, as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, had been foretold by the prophet Agabus.

³ Vespasian, who later became emperor after Nero, was sent into Britain by Claudius and brought the Isle of Wight under Roman rule. This island, situated just off the southern coast of Britain, measures about thirty miles from east to west and twelve miles from north to south. It lies six miles from the British mainland at its easternmost point and three miles at the western end.

⁴ When Nero succeeded Claudius as emperor, he undertook no military campaigns, and, as a result—among the many other calamities he inflicted upon the Roman state—he nearly lost Britain. During his reign, two of the most important towns in Britain were captured and destroyed.

⁵ In the year of our Lord 156, Marcus Antoninus Verus, the fourteenth emperor after Augustus, was made ruler alongside his brother, Aurelius Commodus. During their reign, while the holy Eleutherus was presiding over the Roman Church, Lucius, King of Britain, sent a letter to him, earnestly requesting that, by his authority, he might be received into the Christian faith. His request was soon granted, and the Britons, having received the faith, kept it whole and uncorrupted in peace and tranquillity until the time of the Emperor Diocletian.

Chapter 5 #

¹ In the year of our Lord 189, Severus, an African born in Leptis, a city of the province of Tripolis, became emperor. He was the seventeenth ruler after Augustus and reigned for seventeen years. Naturally severe in temperament and engaged in many wars, he governed the empire with great determination but also with much difficulty. Having emerged victorious from the many violent civil wars of his time, he was drawn into Britain by the widespread revolt of nearly all the allied tribes. After waging numerous hard-fought and bloody battles, he decided to separate the part of the island he had reclaimed from the unconquered territories, not by a stone wall, as some believe, but by a rampart.

² Unlike a wall, which is built of stone, a rampart—used to fortify military camps against enemy attacks—is constructed from earth, cut into sods and piled high to form a barrier. In front of it lies the trench from which the earth was taken, reinforced with strong wooden stakes fixed on top. Thus, Severus dug a great trench and raised a formidable rampart, fortified with several towers, stretching from sea to sea.

³ Later, while in York, he fell ill and died, leaving behind two sons, Bassianus and Geta. Geta was eventually declared an enemy of the state and put to death, while Bassianus, having taken the name Antonius, succeeded to the empire.

Chapter 6 #

¹ In the year of our Lord 286, Diocletian, the thirty-third emperor after Augustus, was chosen by the army and reigned for twenty years. He appointed Maximian, surnamed Herculius, as his co-emperor. During their rule, a man named Carausius, of very humble birth but remarkable skill and energy, was assigned to defend the sea coasts, which were being ravaged by the Franks and Saxons. However, instead of benefiting the empire, he acted to its detriment by keeping for himself all the spoils taken from the raiders rather than returning them to their rightful owners. This led to suspicions that he was deliberately allowing the enemy to plunder the frontiers for his own gain.

² When Maximian ordered his execution, Carausius seized the imperial purple and took control of Britain. He ruled valiantly for seven years but was ultimately betrayed and killed by his associate, Allectus. After taking power, Allectus ruled the island for three years before being defeated by Asclepiodotus, the captain of the Praetorian Guard, who, after ten years of usurpation, restored Britain to the Roman Empire.

³ Meanwhile, Diocletian in the East and Maximian Herculius in the West issued orders for the destruction of churches and the persecution and slaughter of Christians. This was the tenth persecution since the reign of Nero, and it was more prolonged and brutal than almost any before it, lasting continuously for ten years. Throughout this time, churches were burned, innocent people were outlawed, and countless martyrs were put to death. At last, Britain too was granted the great honor of bearing faithful witness to God.

Chapter 7 #

¹ At that time, St. Alban suffered martyrdom. The priest Fortunatus, in his Praise of Virgins, where he mentions the blessed martyrs who have gone to the Lord from all parts of the world, writes:

² “And fruitful Britain noble Alban rears.”

³ Alban, though still a pagan, lived during a time when unbelieving rulers ordered severe persecution of Christians. He gave shelter in his home to a certain cleric who was fleeing from his persecutors. Observing that this man spent day and night in constant prayer and vigil, Alban was suddenly touched by divine grace. Inspired by the example of the fugitive’s faith and devotion, he began to follow his teachings. Gradually, through the cleric’s wise counsel, he cast off the darkness of idolatry and embraced Christianity with complete sincerity of heart.

⁴ After a few days, word reached the wicked ruler that a Christian confessor, though not yet condemned to martyrdom, was being sheltered in Alban’s house. Soldiers were immediately dispatched to search for him. When they arrived at the martyr’s home, St. Alban, rather than allowing his guest and teacher to be seized, presented himself before the soldiers, dressed in the long robe of a cleric. He was then bound and taken before the judge.

⁵ At the time when Alban was brought before him, the judge was standing at the altar, offering sacrifices to devils. Seeing Alban, he became furious that he had willingly placed himself in the hands of the soldiers and exposed himself to such danger for the sake of the guest he had sheltered. In his anger, he ordered that Alban be dragged before the idols he worshipped, saying, “Because you have chosen to hide a rebellious and sacrilegious man rather than hand him over to the soldiers, so that his contempt for the gods might be punished as it deserves, you shall suffer the same punishment that was meant for him if you refuse to worship our religion.” But St. Alban, having freely confessed himself a Christian before the persecutors of the faith, was not shaken by the prince’s threats. Instead, arming himself for spiritual battle, he boldly declared that he would not obey his command.

⁶ Then the judge asked, “What family or race do you come from?” Alban replied, “Why does it matter to you what lineage I am from? If you wish to know the truth about my faith, know this—I am a Christian and free to fulfil my Christian duties.” The judge then said, “Tell me your name at once.” Alban answered, “My parents called me Alban, and I worship and adore the true and living God, who created all things. At this, the judge, consumed with rage, said, “If you wish to attain eternal life, do not delay in offering sacrifices to the great gods.” Alban responded, “These sacrifices, which you offer to devils, can neither benefit their worshippers nor grant the petitions of those who pray to them. Rather, whoever offers sacrifice to these idols will receive the eternal torments of hell as their reward.”

⁷ The judge, upon hearing these words and becoming greatly enraged, ordered this holy confessor of God to be scourged by the executioners, believing that by inflicting severe beatings he might shake the steadfastness of heart that he had failed to weaken with words. Yet, though he was tortured with extreme cruelty, Alban endured it patiently—indeed, even joyfully—for the sake of the Lord. When the judge saw that no amount of torment could break his resolve or turn him away from the practice of the Christian faith, he commanded that he be put to death.

⁸ As Alban was led to execution, he came to a river that flowed swiftly between the walls of the town and the place where he was to die. There he saw a vast crowd of people—men and women of all ages and ranks—who had, no doubt by divine prompting, gathered to witness the martyrdom of the blessed confessor. So many had assembled that the bridge over the river was completely blocked, making it impossible for him to cross that evening. Indeed, almost the entire population had gone out to see him, leaving the judge in the city with hardly any attendants.

⁹ Eager and devout in his desire to attain martyrdom without delay, St. Alban approached the river and lifted his eyes to heaven. At that moment, the river’s waters immediately parted, the channel dried up, and a path was made for him to cross. Among those who witnessed this miracle was the executioner assigned to carry out the sentence. Struck by divine inspiration, he hurried to the place of execution, and, casting aside the drawn sword he had been carrying, fell at Alban’s feet. With deep sincerity, he prayed that he might be deemed worthy either to suffer alongside the martyr he had been ordered to kill or, if possible, to die in his place.

¹⁰ As the executioner was thus transformed from a persecutor into a companion in faith and truth, the other executioners hesitated to take up the sword that lay on the ground. Meanwhile, the holy confessor, accompanied by the great multitude, ascended a hill about half a mile from the arena. It was a place of fitting beauty—graced with an abundance of multicolored flowers, neither steep nor precipitous, but gently sloping like a vast, smooth plain. From ancient times, its natural loveliness had made it a site worthy to be hallowed by the blood of a blessed martyr.

¹¹ At the summit of the hill, St. Alban prayed that God would grant him water, and immediately, a clear spring burst forth at his feet, flowing within its channel. All who witnessed it recognized that even the stream had yielded its service to the martyr. For it was unthinkable that one who had commanded the river to part should desire water on the hilltop unless it was for some divinely fitting purpose. Once it had fulfilled this sacred duty, the river returned to its natural course, leaving behind a testimony of its obedience.

¹² Here, then, the fearless martyr was beheaded, and here he received the crown of life, which God has promised to those who love Him. But the man who had dared to lay impious hands upon the saint’s neck was not permitted to rejoice over his lifeless body, for at the very moment that St. Alban’s head fell, the executioner’s eyes dropped to the ground as well.

¹³ At the same time, the soldier who had earlier, through divine prompting, refused to strike the holy confessor was also beheaded. Though he had not been purified by the waters of baptism, it is evident that he was cleansed by the shedding of his own blood and found worthy to enter the kingdom of heaven.

¹⁴ The judge, astonished by the extraordinary display of so many heavenly miracles, immediately ordered an end to the persecution. He even began to honour the very deaths of the saints, which he had once believed would weaken their devotion to the Christian faith.

¹⁵ The blessed Alban suffered martyrdom on the twenty-second of June, near the city of Verulam, which the English later called Verlamacaestir or Vaeclingacaestir. Afterward, when peaceful Christian times were restored, a church of remarkable craftsmanship was built there, entirely fitting to commemorate his martyrdom. To this day, that place remains a site of healing for the sick and a continual witness to the working of miracles.

¹⁶ At that time, Aaron and Julius, citizens of the City of Legions, also suffered martyrdom, along with many others of both sexes in various places. After enduring numerous torments and having their bodies cruelly mutilated in ways never before heard of, they at last completed their earthly struggle and surrendered their souls to the joys of the heavenly city.

Chapter 8 #

¹ When the storm of persecution had passed, the faithful Christians who had hidden themselves in woods, deserts, and secret caves during the time of danger emerged once more. They rebuilt the churches that had been razed to the ground, founded and completed cathedrals in honour of the holy martyrs, and, as if raising their banners in victory, openly celebrated their festivals and performed their sacred rites with pure hearts and lips.

² This peace endured in the Christian churches of Britain until the rise of the Arian heresy, which, having corrupted the whole world, spread even to this distant island, so far removed from the rest of civilization. Once a passage across the sea had been opened for this plague, the land was quickly overrun by the influence of every heretical error. Ever eager to hear something new, yet never remaining steadfast in true faith, the island soon became tainted with these false doctrines.

³ At this time, Constantius, who had governed Gaul and Spain with great clemency and courtesy while Diocletian was still alive, died in Britain. He left as his successor his son Constantine, who was born of Helena, his concubine, and became emperor of the Gauls. Eutropius records that Constantine was proclaimed emperor in Britain and inherited his father’s rule.

⁴ During his reign, the Arian heresy emerged. Although it was exposed and condemned at the Council of Nicaea, the deadly poison of its false doctrine, as previously mentioned, continued to spread—not only throughout the churches of the world but also to those in the islands.

Chapter 9 #

¹ In the year of our Lord 377, Gratian, the fortieth emperor from Augustus, ruled for six years after the death of Valens, though he had already reigned for some time alongside his uncle Valens and his brother Valentinian. Seeing that the state of the empire was greatly weakened and on the verge of collapse, he was compelled by necessity to restore order. To this end, he invested Theodosius, a Spaniard, with the imperial purple at Sirmium, appointing him emperor over Thrace and the Eastern provinces.

² At this time, Maximus, a man of both ability and integrity—worthy of the title of Augustus had he not violated his oath of allegiance—was proclaimed emperor by the army, though somewhat against his will. He then crossed into Gaul, where, through treachery, he slew Emperor Gratian, who, in fear of this sudden invasion, had been attempting to flee into Italy.

³ Gratian’s brother, Emperor Valentinian, was driven out of Italy and took refuge in the East, where Theodosius received him with fatherly kindness. Before long, Theodosius restored him to the empire, for Maximus, now a usurper, was besieged in Aquileia, captured, and put to death.

Chapter 10 #

¹ In the year of our Lord 394, Arcadius, the son of Theodosius and the forty-third emperor after Augustus, succeeded to the throne alongside his brother Honorius, ruling for thirteen years. During his reign, Pelagius, a Briton, widely spread the corruption of his deceitful doctrine, denying the necessity of divine grace. He was supported in this by his associate, Julian of Campania, who was driven by an unchecked ambition to reclaim the bishopric from which he had been deposed.

² St. Augustine and other orthodox fathers refuted them with countless authoritative Catholic writings, but their efforts failed to correct their errors. Instead, these heretics, rather than being led to the truth, only grew more obstinate in their madness when confronted. Prosper of Aquitaine, the rhetorician, captured this stubborn defiance in elegant heroic verse:

³ “They say that once, consumed by gnawing envy,
A serpent-like foe attacked Augustine in his writings.
What urged the wretched viper to lift its head from the ground,
Though it lay concealed in its dark lair?
Was he nourished by the island Britons on the fruits of their land,
Or did the pastures of Campania swell his heart with pride?”

Chapter 11 #

¹ In the year of our Lord 407, during the reign of Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius and the forty-fourth emperor after Augustus—two years before Alaric, king of the Goths, sacked Rome—the Alani, Suevi, Vandals, and other allied nations, after defeating the Franks, crossed the Rhine and laid waste to all of Gaul.

² Amid this turmoil, the Britons proclaimed Gratian, a local citizen, as their ruler, but he was soon killed. In his place, they elevated Constantine, a man of lowly rank in the army, chosen solely because of the promise suggested by his name rather than any merit of his own. Upon assuming power, he crossed into Gaul, where his dealings with the barbarian invaders, marred by deceitful treaties, caused more harm than good to the Roman state.

³ In response, Count Constantius, acting under the orders of Emperor Honorius, led an army into Gaul, besieged Constantine in the city of Arles, captured him, and had him executed. His son Constans, a former monk whom he had appointed as Caesar, was also slain at Vienne by his own general, Count Gerontius.

⁴ Rome was captured by the Goths in the 1,164th year from its founding. With this, Roman rule in Britain came to an end—nearly 470 years after Gaius Julius Caesar first arrived on the island. The Romans had settled within the fortified boundary built by Emperor Severus, which, as previously mentioned, stretched across the island. They occupied the lands to the south of this barrier, as evidenced by the cities, watchtowers, bridges, and paved roads that remain to this day. However, their authority extended beyond this region, encompassing the farther reaches of Britain as well as the islands lying beyond it.

Chapter 12 #

¹ From that time onward, the British-controlled part of Britain, stripped of its soldiers, military supplies, and the finest of its youth—who had been led away by the reckless ambitions of tyrants, never to return—was left utterly defenseless. The people, entirely untrained in the art of war, were left exposed to plunder.

² As a result, for many years they suffered relentless raids from two fierce and barbarous nations beyond the sea: the Scots from the west and the Picts from the north. These nations are described as being “beyond the sea” not because they were outside Britain, but because they were separated from the Britons by two wide and deep inlets of the sea. One inlet extends inland from the Eastern Sea, while the other comes from the Western Sea, though they do not meet.

³ In the midst of the eastern inlet lies the city of Giudi. On the right shore of the Western Sea stands the city of Alcluith, which in their language means “Rock of the Clyde,” as it is situated near the river of that name.

⁴ Because of the attacks from these nations, the Britons sent messengers to Rome with letters pleading desperately for help. They promised to remain forever subject to Rome, provided their looming enemies were driven away. In response, a fully armed legion was sent to their aid. Upon arriving on the island, the Roman forces engaged the enemy, killing a great number of them and driving the rest out of their allies’ lands. Having freed the Britons from their immediate peril, the Romans advised them to build a wall across the island from one sea to the other, as a defense against future invasions. After offering this advice, the Roman forces returned home in triumph.

⁵ The Britons followed the advice and constructed the wall, but because they lacked skilled stonemasons, they built it from sod instead of stone, rendering it ineffective. Nevertheless, they extended it for many miles between the two inlets of the sea we have mentioned, hoping that where the natural barrier of water was absent, the rampart might serve to defend their borders from enemy incursions. Remains of this fortification—an earthwork of considerable width and height—can still be seen today. It begins about two miles west of the monastery of Aebbercurnig, at a place called Peanfahel in the Pictish language, and Penneltun in English, and it stretches westward to end near the city of Alcluith.

⁶ However, as soon as the former enemies realized that the Roman soldiers had departed, they swiftly returned by sea, breaking through the borders, ravaging the land, and overwhelming everything in their path. Like reapers cutting down ripe grain, they left devastation behind them.

⁷ Once again, the Britons sent desperate messengers to Rome, begging for aid. They pleaded that their wretched country not be completely wiped out and that the name of their Roman province—so long honored—should not be disgraced by being overthrown at the hands of foreign invaders.

⁸ In response, Rome sent another legion. Arriving unexpectedly in the autumn, the Roman forces inflicted a devastating defeat on the enemy, killing many and forcing the survivors to flee across the sea. Before this intervention, the invaders had been accustomed to raiding and plundering the land each year without resistance.

⁹ After this victory, however, the Romans informed the Britons that they could no longer continue such costly and difficult military campaigns on their behalf. Instead, they urged them to take up arms and defend themselves, assuring them that their enemies would not prove too powerful—unless they allowed themselves to become weak through cowardice.

¹⁰ Furthermore, believing it might provide some aid to the allies they were forced to abandon, the Romans constructed a strong stone wall stretching from sea to sea. It ran in a straight line between the towns that had been built as defenses against the enemy, in the same area where Emperor Severus had previously built a rampart.

¹¹ This renowned wall, which can still be seen today, was constructed at both public and private expense, with the Britons also contributing to the effort. It was built to a width of eight feet and a height of twelve feet, extending in a straight line from east to west, as remains visible to this day.

¹² Once the wall was completed, the Romans offered the demoralized Britons sound advice, instructing them on how to arm and defend themselves. Additionally, they constructed watchtowers along the southern coast at intervals overlooking the sea, where Roman ships were stationed, as this region was also vulnerable to barbarian invasions.

¹³ With these final measures in place, the Romans took their leave of their allies—never to return again.

¹⁴ After the Romans returned to their homeland, the Scots and Picts, realizing that Rome would not come to the Britons’ aid again, swiftly returned. Emboldened as never before, they seized control of the entire northernmost part of the island, driving out the native inhabitants as far as the wall.

¹⁵ A fearful and unsteady garrison was stationed to defend the fortification, but overwhelmed by terror, their morale weakened with each passing day. Meanwhile, the enemy relentlessly assaulted them with barbed weapons, cruelly dragging the cowardly defenders from the wall and hurling them to the ground.

¹⁶ Eventually, the Britons abandoned both their cities and their wall, fleeing in all directions. The enemy pursued them relentlessly, and what followed was the most harrowing slaughter yet. The defenseless Britons were torn apart by their foes, as lambs are devoured by wild beasts.

¹⁷ Driven from their homes and lands, they barely escaped immediate starvation by resorting to robbery and plunder, turning against one another in bitter strife. Thus, on top of the devastation wrought by their enemies, they inflicted further suffering upon themselves. In the end, the entire land was left desolate, with nothing to sustain life except what little food could be gathered through hunting.

Chapter 13 #

¹ In the year of our Lord 423, Theodosius the Younger—forty-fifth in succession from Augustus—succeeded Honorius and ruled the Roman Empire for twenty-six years.

² In the eighth year of his reign, Palladius was sent by Pope Celestine to the Christian Scots as their first bishop. In the twenty-third year of Theodosius’ reign, Aetius, a distinguished statesman and patrician, held his third consulship alongside Symmachus.

³ At that time, the desperate remnants of the Britons sent him a letter, which began: “To Aetius, thrice Consul, the groans of the Britons.” They went on to describe their suffering in these words: “The barbarians drive us to the sea; the sea drives us back to the barbarians. Between them, we face two kinds of death—we are either slaughtered or drowned.”

⁴ Yet, despite their pleas, Aetius was unable to send aid, as he was embroiled in a dire conflict with Bleda and Attila, the kings of the Huns. The previous year, Bleda had been assassinated through the treachery of his own brother Attila, but Attila remained an overwhelming menace to the Roman Republic, ravaging nearly all of Europe and laying waste to cities and fortresses.

⁵ At the same time, Constantinople suffered a severe famine, which was soon followed by a devastating plague. A large portion of the city’s walls—along with fifty-seven towers—collapsed. Many other cities also fell into ruin, and the combined effects of famine, disease, and pestilence claimed the lives of countless people and livestock.

Chapter 14 #

¹ Meanwhile, the famine continued to worsen, bringing even greater suffering to the Britons and leaving a lasting memory of its devastation for future generations. Driven by desperation, many Britons surrendered themselves to the invaders, accepting subjugation. However, others refused to yield, placing their trust in God when all human aid had failed.

² These resolute survivors launched raids from their hiding places in the mountains, caves, and forests. Over time, they began inflicting heavy losses on their enemies, who had spent years pillaging their land. In response, the Irish raiders withdrew, returning to their homeland with the intent of launching future attacks.

³ The Picts, on the other hand, settled permanently in the northernmost part of the island, where they remained. Yet, they continued to harass and plunder the Britons from time to time, ensuring that their presence remained a constant threat.

⁴ When the devastation caused by the enemy finally subsided, the island experienced an abundance of grain greater than had ever been known before. However, along with this prosperity came moral corruption, which quickly led to every kind of crime. In particular, cruelty, a hatred of truth, and a love of falsehood spread so widely that if anyone among them happened to be gentler than the rest and inclined toward truth, the others despised and persecuted him without restraint, as if he were an enemy of Britain. This wickedness was not limited to the laity; even the Lord’s own flock, along with their shepherds, cast off Christ’s light yoke and gave themselves over to drunkenness, enmity, quarrels, strife, envy, and other sins. Meanwhile, a sudden and severe plague struck this corrupt generation, killing so many that the living scarcely managed to bury the dead. Yet even in the face of such devastation, those who survived refused to turn from the spiritual death they had brought upon themselves through their sins. Neither the loss of their friends nor the fear of their own deaths could move them to repentance. Before long, a far greater punishment fell upon this sinful nation for its dreadful crimes. They gathered in council to determine what should be done and where they might seek help against the relentless and brutal incursions of the northern tribes. In agreement with their king, Vortigern, they unanimously decided to summon the Saxons from across the sea to aid them—an act which, as the outcome made clear, was allowed by the Lord so that they might suffer judgment for their wickedness.

Chapter 15 #

¹ In the year of our Lord 449, Marcian, the forty-sixth emperor from Augustus, was made ruler alongside Valentinian and reigned for seven years. Then the nation of the Angles, or Saxons, having been invited by the aforementioned king, arrived in Britain with three warships and were granted a place to settle in the eastern part of the island. This was ostensibly for the purpose of defending the land, though their true intent was conquest. They engaged in battle against the northern invaders and emerged victorious. When news of their success, the land’s fertility, and the cowardice of the Britons reached their homeland, a larger fleet was soon dispatched, bringing even more warriors. These reinforcements joined the original army, forming an invincible force. The newcomers were given land among the Britons on the condition that they would fight against their enemies to ensure the peace and security of the country, while the Britons agreed to provide them with payment. Those who arrived belonged to three of the most powerful Germanic nations—the Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes.

² From the Jutes descended the people of Kent and the inhabitants of the Isle of Wight, including those in the province of the West Saxons who, to this day, are still called Jutes and dwell opposite the Isle of Wight. From the Saxons—specifically from the region now known as Old Saxony—came the East Saxons, the South Saxons, and the West Saxons. From the Angles, who came from the land called Angulus—which is said to have remained uninhabited from that time to this, lying between the territories of the Jutes and the Saxons—descended the East Angles, the Midland Angles, the Mercians, the entire race of the Northumbrians (that is, those nations dwelling north of the River Humber), and the other peoples of the Angles.

³ The first leaders are said to have been the two brothers, Hengist and Horsa. Of these, Horsa was later slain in battle by the Britons, and a monument bearing his name still stands in the eastern parts of Kent. They were the sons of Victgilsus, whose father was Vitta, son of Vecta, son of Woden, from whom the royal lineage of many provinces traces its descent. In a short time, great numbers of these nations poured into the island, and the foreigners increased so rapidly that they became a source of fear to the very people who had invited them. Then, suddenly forming an alliance with the Picts—whom they had previously driven back by force of arms—they turned their weapons against their former allies. At first, they forced the Britons to provide them with a greater supply of provisions. Then, seeking an excuse for conflict, they declared that unless more abundant supplies were brought to them, they would break the alliance and ravage the entire island. Nor were they slow in carrying out their threats.

⁴ In short, the fire kindled by the hands of the pagans proved to be God’s just vengeance for the sins of the people, much like the fire once set by the Chaldeans that consumed the walls and buildings of Jerusalem. Here too, through the cruelty of the merciless conquerors—yet by the judgment of the just Judge—the flames spread unchecked, laying waste to the surrounding cities and countryside, sweeping from the eastern to the western sea, and overrunning the entire doomed island. Public and private buildings alike were destroyed; priests were slaughtered at the very altars; no rank was spared, as bishops and common people alike perished by fire and sword. There were none left to bury the dead who had been so cruelly slain. Some of the wretched survivors, captured in the mountains, were massacred in great numbers. Others, weakened by hunger, emerged to surrender to the enemy, choosing perpetual servitude in exchange for food—if they were not killed on the spot. Some, with sorrowful hearts, fled across the sea. Others remained in their homeland, but lived in misery, haunted by fear and distress, hiding among the mountains, forests, and crags.

Chapter 16 #

¹ When the enemy army, having devastated the land and scattered the native inhabitants, returned to their own settlements, the Britons gradually began to regain their courage and strength. Emerging from the hiding places where they had concealed themselves, they united in calling upon Divine aid, lest they be utterly destroyed. At that time, their leader was Ambrosius Aurelianus, a man of great worth, who alone, by chance, had survived the calamity that had claimed his parents—who were of royal lineage—when the storm of destruction fell upon the Roman nation. Under his command, the Britons rallied and, offering battle to the victors, triumphed by the help of God. From that day onward, the struggle shifted back and forth, with victory sometimes favoring the Britons and at other times their enemies, until the year of the siege of Badon Hill, when the Britons inflicted a great slaughter upon their foes, around forty-four years after the Saxons’ arrival in England. But of this, more will be said later.

² *Chapter 17: 429 A.D.

³ A few years before the arrival of the Saxons, the Pelagian heresy, introduced by Agricola, the son of Severianus, a Pelagian bishop, had corrupted the faith of the Britons with its pernicious influence. Though the Britons steadfastly refused to embrace this perverse doctrine or to blaspheme the grace of Christ, they lacked the ability to refute its subtle deceptions through argument alone. Therefore, they wisely sought counsel and resolved to request aid from the Gallican bishops in this spiritual conflict. In response, a great synod was convened, where the assembled prelates deliberated on whom to send to uphold the faith. By unanimous agreement, they chose the apostolic bishops Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre, and Lupus of Troyes, to go to Britain and strengthen the people’s belief in the grace of God. With fervent zeal, these holy men obeyed the summons and the command of the Church, setting sail at once. Their ship, blessed with favorable winds, made swift progress across the sea until they reached the midpoint between the coasts of Gaul and Britain.

⁴ There, suddenly, they were hindered by the malice of demons, who, envious that such eminent and holy men had been sent to restore the people to salvation, stirred up violent storms and covered the sky with darkness. The winds raged so fiercely that the sails could not withstand their force, and the skill of the sailors proved useless. The ship was upheld not by human effort but by prayer. At that moment, their spiritual leader and bishop, exhausted from weariness, had fallen asleep. Then, as if the storm grew stronger because there was no one left to resist it, the tempest intensified, and the ship, battered by the waves, was on the verge of sinking. In their distress, the blessed Lupus and the others, filled with fear, woke their elder so that he might confront the raging elements.

⁵ He, growing all the more resolute in proportion to the danger, called upon Christ, and, in the name of the Holy Trinity, took a little water and sprinkled it over the raging sea. At once, the tumultuous waves were stilled. He then admonished his companion, encouraged all who were with him, and together they raised their voices in united prayer. Divine aid was granted, the adversaries were driven away, and a perfect calm followed. The winds, now favorable, turned to assist their voyage, and before long, they safely crossed the sea and arrived at the peaceful shore they had long desired. A great multitude, gathering from all directions, came to welcome the bishops, whose arrival had even been foretold by the words of their adversaries. For the evil spirits, in their terror, revealed their fears, and when the bishops cast them out from those who were possessed, the demons themselves testified to the storm they had stirred up, the perils they had caused, and their own defeat, acknowledging that they had been vanquished by the merits and authority of these holy men.

⁶ Meanwhile, the bishops quickly spread throughout Britain, filling the land with the fame of their preaching and miracles. The Word of God was proclaimed daily, not only in the churches but also in the streets and fields, so that the faithful were strengthened in their Catholic belief, and those who had been led astray turned back to the path of truth. Like the Apostles, they gained honor and authority through their righteousness, wisdom through their study of Scripture, and the power to work miracles through their holiness. Thus, the entire country eagerly embraced their teaching, while the leaders of the heresy hid themselves in shame, mourning like evil spirits over the people who had been rescued from their deception. At last, after much hesitation, they dared to come forward and challenge the bishops. They appeared in all the splendor of their wealth, dressed in magnificent garments and accompanied by a large retinue, preferring to risk open debate rather than endure the humiliation of remaining silent before those they had misled, lest their silence be taken as an admission of defeat.

⁷ A vast multitude had gathered, bringing their wives and children, as the people assembled both as spectators and judges. The two opposing sides stood in stark contrast—on one side, Divine faith; on the other, human arrogance. On one side, piety; on the other, pride. On one side stood Christ; on the other, Pelagius, the founder of their false doctrine. The blessed bishops allowed their opponents to speak first, and for a long time, their empty words filled the air, consuming time yet offering nothing of substance. Then, the venerable prelates unleashed the full power of their eloquence, pouring forth a torrent of truth. They wove together the words of the Apostles and Evangelists, skillfully interweaving the Scriptures with their own discourse and reinforcing their arguments with the testimony of the written Word. At last, vainglory was overcome, and unbelief refuted. The heretics, unable to withstand the force of truth, found themselves silenced at every turn and were compelled to admit their errors. The gathered people, acting as judges, could scarcely contain their indignation and signified their judgment with loud acclamations, barely restraining themselves from taking action against the defeated adversaries.

Chapter 18: 429 A.D. #

¹ After this, a certain man who held the rank of tribune came forward with his wife, bringing their ten-year-old daughter, who was blind, to be healed by the bishops. The bishops instructed that she be taken to their opponents. But when these adversaries, convicted by their own conscience, saw her condition, they too pleaded alongside the child’s parents and begged the bishops to heal her.

² Seeing their opponents humbled, the bishops offered a brief prayer. Then, Germanus, filled with the Holy Spirit, invoked the Trinity and took from his side a small casket that hung around his neck, containing relics of the saints. In full view of the people, he placed it on the girl’s eyes. Immediately, her blindness was lifted, and she was filled with the light of truth.

³ Her parents rejoiced, and the crowd stood in awe at the miracle. From that day forward, the heretical beliefs were so thoroughly erased from the hearts of the people that they began to hunger for and seek the teaching of the bishops.

⁴ With this wicked heresy now defeated, its proponents refuted, and the people firmly established in the purity of the faith, the bishops went to the tomb of the blessed martyr Alban to give thanks to God through his intercession. There, Germanus, who carried with him relics of all the Apostles and various martyrs, offered prayers and then ordered the tomb to be opened. He wished to place these sacred relics within, deeming it fitting that the remains of saints gathered from many lands—just as their equal merits had won them a place in heaven—should rest together in one tomb.

⁵ After these holy relics were reverently placed inside, Germanus took up a handful of dust from the spot where the blessed martyr’s blood had been shed, intending to bring it with him. In this dust, the blood remained visible, a lasting sign that the martyrs’ sacrifice had been red with their shed blood, even as their persecutor had turned pale in death. As a result of these events, an innumerable multitude of people was converted to the Lord that day.

Chapter 19: 429 A.D. #

¹ As they were making their way back, the treacherous enemy, having by chance set a trap, caused Germanus to stumble and injure his foot in a fall—unaware that, just as with the blessed Job, his sufferings would only serve to increase his merits. While he was forced to remain in that place for a time due to his injury, a fire broke out in a nearby cottage. Fanned by the wind, the flames spread quickly, consuming the surrounding houses, which were thatched with reeds, and advancing toward the dwelling where Germanus lay.

² The people rushed to the bishop, pleading with him to allow them to carry him to safety. But he rebuked them, and with unwavering faith, refused to be moved. Terrified and desperate, the crowd scattered to combat the blaze. Yet, in a powerful display of divine intervention, all their efforts failed—whatever they tried to save was consumed by fire. However, the house where the ailing bishop lay, though completely exposed to the advancing flames, remained untouched. While the fire raged all around, the place where he rested stood unharmed in the midst of the destruction.

³ The crowd rejoiced at the miracle, willingly overcome by the power of God. Day and night, a great multitude gathered before the humble cottage—some seeking healing for their souls, others for their bodies. The many wonders that Christ performed through His servant, and all the miraculous works done by the ailing bishop, cannot be fully recounted.

⁴ Despite his injury, Germanus refused to allow any medicine to be applied. But one night, he saw a figure clothed in garments as white as snow standing beside him. The figure reached out his hand, appearing to lift him up, and commanded him to stand firm on his feet. From that moment, his pain vanished, and he was completely healed. When morning came, he set out on his journey with renewed strength and unwavering courage.

Chapter 20: 430 A.D. #

¹ Meanwhile, the Saxons and Picts, joining their forces, waged war against the Britons. Facing such peril, the Britons were forced to take up arms. However, in their fear and feeling themselves no match for their enemies, they turned to the holy bishops for help. The bishops, keeping their promise, came swiftly to their aid. Their presence alone inspired such confidence in the fearful Britons that it seemed as if a great army had come to reinforce them. In this way, through these apostolic leaders, Christ Himself was present in their camp.

² The holy season of Lent was approaching, and its sacredness was deepened by the presence of the bishops. Through daily sermons, the people were instructed in the faith, and many eagerly sought the grace of baptism. A great number from the army desired to receive the saving waters, and so a makeshift church of woven branches was constructed for the celebration of the Feast of the Resurrection of our Lord. Though built in a military camp, it was arranged with the same reverence and care as if it stood in a city.

³ Still wet from the waters of baptism, the troops set out, their faith burning with zeal. Where once they had placed no hope in weapons, they now looked to the help of God. News of their purification reached the enemy, who, believing they faced an unarmed and defenseless force, advanced swiftly, confident of victory.

⁴ However, their approach was detected by scouts. After the celebration of Easter, as most of the army—newly baptized—began to take up arms and prepare for battle, Germanus offered to be their leader. He selected the most capable soldiers, surveyed the surrounding land, and took note of a valley enclosed by hills along the route where the enemy was expected to pass.

⁵ There, Germanus positioned his untested troops, taking command as their leader. Soon, a great host of enemies approached, unaware that the Britons lay in ambush, watching their every move.

⁶ At the decisive moment, Germanus, holding the standard, encouraged his men and ordered them to repeat his words in a loud voice. As the enemy advanced, confident in their surprise attack, the bishops cried out three times, “Hallelujah!” The entire army echoed the cry, and the surrounding hills resounded with the powerful shout.

⁷ Struck with terror, the enemy believed they were being ambushed by an overwhelming force. The echoes from the rocks, and even the very sky above them, seemed to thunder with impending doom. Panic seized them, and in their fear, they fled in disarray, their feet unable to carry them away fast enough.

⁸ The enemy fled in complete disorder, throwing down their weapons, satisfied if they could escape with their lives, even without protection. In their blind panic, many who had earlier crossed the river were swept away and drowned.

⁹ The Britons, having won without striking a single blow, stood as passive witnesses to their own victory, watching as divine justice was fulfilled before their eyes. They gathered the abandoned spoils, rejoicing in the triumph that Heaven had granted them. The bishops had vanquished their foes without bloodshed, securing victory through faith alone, without reliance on human strength.

¹⁰ With peace restored to the island and both visible enemies and unseen forces of darkness defeated, they prepared to return home. Through their own holiness and the intercession of the blessed martyr Alban, they were granted a calm and safe voyage. Their ship, blessed by divine favor, carried them back in peace to the joyful welcome of their people.

Chapter 21: 447 A.D. #

¹ Not long after, word arrived from the same island that certain individuals were once again attempting to spread the Pelagian heresy. Once more, all the priests implored the holy Germanus to defend the cause of God, just as he had done before. Without hesitation, he agreed to their request.

² This time, he took with him Severus, a man of extraordinary holiness. Severus was a disciple of the blessed father Lupus, bishop of Troyes, and at that time had been ordained bishop of the Treveri (Trier), where he was preaching the Word of God to the tribes of Upper Germany. Together, they set sail for Britain, and with favorable winds and calm waters, they crossed the sea.

³ Meanwhile, the evil spirits, rushing across the island, were forced—against their will—to proclaim that Germanus was coming. So powerful was this divine forewarning that Elafius, a prominent leader of the region, hurried to meet the holy men without receiving any message from a human messenger. With him, he brought his son, a young man afflicted with a severe infirmity. The sinews of his knee had wasted away and shriveled, leaving his limb withered and unable to walk.

⁴ A great multitude followed Elafius as he came. When the bishops arrived, they were met by this gathering of simple and eager people, whom they blessed and to whom they preached the Word of God. To their joy, they found that the people remained steadfast in the faith as they had left them. Upon learning that only a few had gone astray, they sought out the ones responsible for spreading false teachings and condemned them.

⁵ Then suddenly, Elafius threw himself at the feet of the bishops, presenting his son, whose suffering was evident and needed no words to describe it. Everyone was moved with sorrow, but the bishops, especially, were filled with compassion and called upon God’s mercy. At once, the blessed Germanus had the young man sit down, touched his weakened and crippled knee, and ran his healing hand over the afflicted area. Immediately, by the power of his touch, health was restored—the withered limb regained its strength, the tendons resumed their function, and, before the eyes of the gathered crowd, the young man was returned whole to his father.

⁶ The multitude was astonished by the miracle, and the Catholic faith took deep root in their hearts. Following this, they were urged in a sermon to correct their errors. By unanimous agreement, the leaders of the heresy—who had already been banished from the island—were brought before the bishops to be sent to the mainland. This ensured that the country was freed from their influence while also giving them the opportunity to be corrected in their beliefs. As a result, the faith remained pure and uncorrupted in those regions for many years. Once everything had been set in order, the blessed bishops returned home as safely and successfully as they had come.

⁷ But after this, Germanus traveled to Ravenna to plead for peace on behalf of the Armoricans. There, he was received with great honor by Emperor Valentinian and his mother, Placidia. Shortly thereafter, he departed from this world to be with Christ. His body was carried back to his own city in a grand procession, accompanied by miraculous signs along the way.

⁸ Not long after, Valentinian was assassinated by the followers of Aetius, the patrician whom he had previously put to death. This took place in the sixth year of Emperor Marcian’s reign, marking the end of the Western Roman Empire.

Chapter 22 #

¹ In the meantime, Britain experienced a temporary respite from foreign invasions, but not from internal conflict. The cities that had been devastated and abandoned by the enemy remained in ruins, and those who had survived the attacks now turned against one another in civil war.

² However, for a time, the kings, priests, nobles, and common people still held themselves somewhat in check, remembering the recent disasters and bloodshed. But as that generation passed away and a new one arose—one that had no memory of those troubled times and had only known the relative peace of the present—truth and justice were completely abandoned. Not only were they disregarded, but barely anyone even seemed to remember them.

³ To these countless evils, which their own historian Gildas mournfully records, they added yet another grave offense: they made no effort to preach the Christian faith to the Saxons or the English who lived among them. Yet, in His mercy, God did not forsake His chosen people. Instead, He sent to that nation heralds far more worthy, who would bring them to the true faith.

Chapter 23: 596 A.D. #

¹ In the year of our Lord 582, Maurice, the fifty-fourth ruler since Augustus, ascended the throne and reigned for twenty-one years. In the tenth year of his reign, Gregory—a man distinguished for both his learning and his leadership—was elevated to the Apostolic See of Rome, where he presided for thirteen years, six months, and ten days.

² Moved by divine inspiration, in the fourteenth year of the same emperor’s reign—about one hundred and fifty years after the arrival of the English in Britain—Gregory sent Augustine, a servant of God, along with several other monks who feared the Lord, to preach the Word of God to the English people. Obedient to the pope’s command, they embarked on their mission. However, not long into their journey, they were overcome with fear and hesitation. The thought of venturing into an unfamiliar land, among a barbarous and hostile people whose language they did not understand, filled them with dread. Rather than continue, they agreed among themselves that it would be safer to turn back.

³ At once, Augustine—who had been chosen to be consecrated as bishop if they were received by the English—was sent back to Rome to humbly petition the blessed Gregory for permission to abandon the mission, arguing that the journey was too dangerous, exhausting, and uncertain. In response, the pope sent them a letter of exhortation, encouraging them to press forward in their task of preaching the Divine Word and to trust in God’s help. The letter read as follows:

⁴ “Gregory, servant of the servants of God, to the servants of our Lord.

⁵ Since it is better never to begin a good work than to abandon one that has already been started, it is your duty, my beloved sons, to carry out with all diligence the sacred mission which, by the help of the Lord, you have undertaken. Therefore, do not let the hardships of the journey or the words of those who speak against you discourage you. Instead, with earnest devotion and zeal, fulfill your task under God’s guidance, knowing that great labor is rewarded with even greater eternal glory.

⁶ When Augustine, your superior, returns to you—whom we also appoint as your abbot—obey him humbly in all things. Be assured that whatever you do under his direction will be for the benefit of your souls. May Almighty God protect you with His grace and grant that, in the heavenly kingdom, I may rejoice in the fruits of your labor. For though I cannot toil beside you, I will share in the joy of your reward, since I willingly send you forth for this mission.

⁷ May God keep you safe, my most beloved sons.”

⁸ Given on the 23rd of July, in the fourteenth year of the reign of our most devout lord, Mauritius Tiberius Augustus, the thirteenth year after his consulship, and the fourteenth indiction.

Chapter 24: 596 A.D. #

¹ The same venerable pope also sent, at that time, a letter to Aetherius, Archbishop of Arles, urging him to receive Augustine favorably as he traveled to Britain. The letter read as follows:

² “Gregory, servant of the servants of God, to his most reverend and holy brother and fellow bishop, Aetherius.

³ Although devout men need no formal introduction when seeking aid from priests who possess the love that pleases God, we take this opportunity to write to you, dear Brother, to inform you that, with God’s help, we have sent the bearer of this letter, Augustine, a servant of God whose zeal we fully trust, along with other servants of God, on a mission for the salvation of souls. It is fitting that your Holiness assist them with priestly devotion, offering them every support within your power.

⁴ To encourage your readiness in this matter, we have instructed him to explain to you in detail the purpose of his journey. Knowing this, you will, as your duty to God requires, offer him the aid and encouragement needed.

⁵ We also commend to your charity our beloved son, Candidus, the priest, whom we have entrusted with the administration of a small patrimony belonging to our Church.

⁶ May God keep you safe, most reverend Brother."

⁷ Given on the 23rd day of July, in the fourteenth year of the reign of our most devout lord, Mauritius Tiberius Augustus, the thirteenth year after his consulship, and the fourteenth indiction.

Chapter 25: 597 A.D. #

¹ Strengthened by the encouragement of the blessed Father Gregory, Augustine resumed his mission to preach the Word of God. Together with his fellow servants of Christ, he journeyed to Britain, where he arrived safely.

² At that time, the powerful Ethelbert was king of Kent. He had extended his rule as far as the great River Humber, which marked the division between the Southern and Northern Saxons. To the east of Kent lay the large Isle of Thanet, which, according to the English reckoning, contained around 600 families. This island was separated from the mainland by the River Wantsum, a waterway about three furlongs wide, which could only be crossed at two points, as it flowed into the sea at both ends.

³ It was on this island that Augustine and his companions, nearly forty in number, landed. By the order of the blessed Pope Gregory, they had obtained interpreters from among the Franks. They then sent a message to King Ethelbert, informing him that they had come from Rome, bringing a joyful proclamation—the promise of eternal joy in heaven and a kingdom that would never end, offered by the living and true God to all who would listen and believe.

⁴ Upon hearing their message, King Ethelbert ordered that Augustine and his companions remain on the island where they had landed and be provided with the necessities of life while he considered how to respond. He had already heard of the Christian faith, as his wife, Bertha, was a Christian of Frankish royal lineage. She had been given to him in marriage on the condition that she would be free to practice her religion without interference. To support her in her faith, she had been accompanied to Kent by Bishop Liudhard.

⁵ A few days later, the king traveled to the island and, seated in the open air, summoned Augustine and his companions to meet with him. He had deliberately chosen not to meet them indoors, following an old superstition that those who practiced magical arts could gain power over others if received within a house. By meeting them in the open, he sought to guard himself against any possible deception.

⁶ But Augustine and his companions came not with magic, but with divine power. They carried a silver cross as their standard and a painted image of our Lord and Savior upon a board. As they approached, they chanted litanies and offered prayers to the Lord, seeking eternal salvation both for themselves and for those to whom they had been sent.

⁷ When they had taken their seats, as the king had commanded, they preached the Word of life to him and those in his presence. After listening to them, the king replied:

⁸ “Your words and promises are pleasing, but because they are new to us and unfamiliar, I cannot accept them so readily as to abandon the faith that I and the whole English nation have long followed. However, since you have come as strangers from a distant land, and I understand that you wish to share with us what you believe to be true and beneficial, I will not harm you. Rather, I will receive you kindly and ensure that you have everything necessary for your well-being. Moreover, I do not forbid you to preach and to win over as many as you can to your faith.”

⁹ He therefore granted them a dwelling in the city of Canterbury, which was the chief city of all his dominions, and, as he had promised, not only provided them with sustenance but also did not hinder them from preaching. It is said that, as they approached the city, they carried the holy cross and the image of our sovereign Lord and King, Jesus Christ, and, according to their custom, chanted this litany together: “We beseech Thee, O Lord, in Thy great mercy, that Thy wrath and anger may be turned away from this city and from Thy holy house, for we have sinned. Hallelujah.”

Chapter 26: 597 A.D. #

¹ As soon as they entered the dwelling assigned to them, they began to follow the Apostolic way of life, as in the early Church, devoting themselves to constant prayer, vigils, and fasting. They preached the Word of life to as many as they could, disregarding worldly possessions as of no concern to them, receiving only the necessary food from those they taught. They lived in full accordance with their teaching, always prepared to endure hardships and even to die for the truth they proclaimed. In short, some believed and were baptized, moved by the simplicity of their blameless lives and the sweetness of their heavenly doctrine.

² On the eastern side of the city stood a church dedicated long before in honor of St. Martin, built while the Romans still occupied the island. The queen, who, as previously mentioned, was a Christian, used to pray there. In this church, they first gathered to chant the Psalms, to pray, to celebrate Mass, to preach, and to baptize. Later, when the king was converted to the faith, they were granted greater freedom to preach throughout the land and to build or restore churches.

³ When he, like the others, believed and was baptized—drawn by the pure lives of these holy men and the gracious promises they confirmed through many miracles—greater numbers began gathering each day to hear the Word. Forsaking their pagan rites, they entered into fellowship through faith in the unity of Christ’s Holy Church. It is said that while the king rejoiced in their conversion and faith, he compelled no one to embrace Christianity but instead showed greater affection to the believers, regarding them as fellow citizens in the kingdom of Heaven. For he had learned from those who instructed him and led him to salvation that the service of Christ must be voluntary, not forced. Before long, he granted his teachers a permanent residence befitting their station in his chief city of Canterbury, along with various possessions necessary for their needs.

Chapter 27: 597-601 A.D. #

¹ In the meantime, Augustine, the man of God, traveled to Arles and, according to the instructions he had received from the holy Father Gregory, was consecrated Archbishop of the English nation by Aetherius, the archbishop of that city. Upon returning to Britain, he sent the priest Laurentius and the monk Peter to Rome to inform Pope Gregory that the English people had embraced the faith of Christ and that he himself had been appointed their bishop. At the same time, he sought the pope’s guidance on certain pressing questions that troubled him. Before long, he received fitting answers, which we have deemed appropriate to include in this history.

² The First Question of the blessed Augustine, Bishop of the Church of Canterbury: “Concerning bishops—what should their manner of life be toward their clergy? Into how many portions should the offerings of the faithful at the altar be divided? And how should the bishop conduct himself in the Church?”

³ Gregory, Pope of the City of Rome, answers: “Holy Scripture, in which we do not doubt you are well versed, testifies to this, particularly in the Epistles of the Blessed Paul to Timothy, where he instructs him on how to conduct himself in the house of God. However, it is the custom of the Apostolic See to give bishops these instructions at their ordination: that all revenues received should be divided into four parts—one for the bishop and his household, to provide hospitality and care for guests; another for the clergy; a third for the poor; and the fourth for the maintenance and repair of churches.

⁴ But since you, my brother, have been trained in monastic discipline, you must not live apart from your clergy in the Church of the English, which, by God’s will, has only recently been converted to the faith. Rather, you must establish among them the way of life practiced by our fathers in the early Church, where no one claimed any possessions as his own, but all things were held in common.

⁵ But if there are any clerics not received into holy orders who cannot remain continent, they should take wives and receive their stipends outside the community; for we know that it is written concerning those same fathers of whom we have spoken, that “distribution was made unto every man according as he had need”. Care must also be taken to provide for their stipends and to ensure they remain under ecclesiastical discipline so that they may live in an orderly manner, devote themselves to the singing of psalms, and, with God’s help, keep their hearts, tongues, and bodies from all that is unlawful.

⁶ As for those who live in common, there is no need to discuss the assignment of portions or the practice of hospitality and charity, since whatever remains beyond their necessities should be spent on pious and religious works, according to the teaching of our Lord and Master: “Give alms of such things as you have over, and behold, all things are clean unto you”.

⁷ Augustine’s Second Question: “Since the faith is one and the same, why are there different customs in different Churches? Is one form of the Mass observed in the holy Roman Church and another in the Church of Gaul?”

⁸ Pope Gregory answers: “You know, my brother, the custom of the Roman Church, in which you remember that you were brought up. But my desire is that if you have found anything in the Roman, Gallican, or any other Church that may be more pleasing to Almighty God, you should carefully select it and diligently teach the Church of the English, which is still new in the faith, whatever you can gather from the various Churches. For things are not to be loved for the sake of the places they come from, but rather places should be valued for the good things they contain. Therefore, choose from every Church whatever is pious, devout, and right, and, as it were, weave them together into one practice, so that the minds of the English may be shaped by it.”

⁹ Augustine’s Third Question: “I ask you: what punishment should be given to someone who steals from a church?”

¹⁰ Gregory answers: “My brother, you must judge how to correct a thief based on his circumstances. Some steal despite having enough, while others steal out of necessity. Therefore, some should be punished with fines, others with lashes—some more severely, others more leniently. However, when greater severity is required, it must come from love, not anger. The goal is to correct the person, preventing him from being condemned to the fires of Hell.

¹¹ We must uphold discipline among the faithful, just as good parents discipline their children. Parents punish their children with stripes for their faults, yet they still intend to make them heirs and preserve their wealth for them. In the same way, discipline in the Church must be guided by love, determining the right measure of punishment so that nothing is done beyond what reason allows.

¹² Additionally, those who have stolen from the Church must restore what they have taken. However, the Church must not demand more than what was lost or seek profit from worldly matters.”

¹³ Augustine’s Fourth Question: “May two full brothers marry two sisters who are from a family far removed from them?”

¹⁴ Gregory answers: “Yes, this is certainly lawful, for there is nothing in Holy Scripture that prohibits it.”

¹⁵ Augustine’s Fifth Question: “To what degree may the faithful marry their relatives? And is it lawful to marry a stepmother or a brother’s wife?”

¹⁶ Gregory answers: “A certain civil law in the Roman Commonwealth permits the marriage of a man and woman who are the children of a brother and sister, or of two full brothers or two full sisters. However, experience has shown that the offspring of such unions often do not survive. Furthermore, Divine Law forbids a man to “uncover the nakedness of his kindred”. Therefore, marriage should only be permitted from the third or fourth generation of relatives, while those in the second generation of kinship must completely abstain from marrying one another.

¹⁷ Marrying one’s stepmother is a grave sin because the Law states, “You shall not uncover the nakedness of your father”. While a son cannot literally uncover his father’s nakedness, Scripture also says, “The two shall become one flesh”. Thus, if a man takes his stepmother, who was one flesh with his father, he is in effect uncovering his father’s nakedness.

¹⁸ Likewise, it is forbidden to marry one’s brother’s wife because, through the former union, she has become one flesh with him. This was the very sin for which John the Baptist was put to death. Though he was not directly ordered to deny Christ, and his execution was not for explicitly confessing Christ, he was still martyred for upholding the truth. As our Lord Jesus Christ said, “I am the Truth”, and because John was killed for the truth, he ultimately shed his blood for Christ.

¹⁹ However, since many among the English, while still heathens, are said to have entered into such unlawful unions, they must be instructed upon coming to the faith to abstain from them and to understand that this is a grave sin. They should fear the dreadful judgment of God, lest they, for the sake of indulging their fleshly desires, bring upon themselves the torments of eternal punishment.

²⁰ Yet, they are not to be denied the Communion of the Body and Blood of Christ solely for this reason, lest they appear to be punished for sins committed in ignorance before receiving Baptism. For in these times, the Holy Church acts with both zeal and mercy—she punishes some offenses strictly, tolerates others in compassion, and overlooks certain faults in her wisdom. By such patience and discretion, she often restrains greater evils.

²¹ Nevertheless, all who come to the faith must be warned not to engage in such practices. And if anyone knowingly commits these sins, they must be barred from receiving the Communion of the Body and Blood of Christ. For while some degree of tolerance is extended to those who sinned in ignorance, those who persist in sin with full knowledge must be punished with severity.

²² Augustine’s Sixth Question: “May a bishop be consecrated without other bishops being present if the distance between them is so great that they cannot easily gather?”

²³ Gregory answers: “Since you are currently the only bishop in the Church of England, it is unavoidable that you must ordain a bishop without the presence of others. After all, when would bishops travel from Gaul solely to witness your ordinations?

²⁴ However, my brother, I urge you to establish bishops in such a way that they are not too far apart. This will ensure that, when the time comes to ordain another bishop, other pastors—whose presence is greatly beneficial—can easily gather. When, by God’s help, bishops have been ordained in neighboring regions, no bishop should be consecrated without the assembly of at least three or four bishops.

²⁵ Even in spiritual matters, we can take guidance from worldly customs. In marriage, for example, it is customary for other married couples to be present, so that those who have already entered the union may share in the joy of those who follow. How much more fitting, then, is it that during the sacred ordination of a bishop—wherein a man is joined to God through holy ministry—other bishops should be present? They may rejoice in his elevation and, together, offer prayers to Almighty God for his guidance and protection.”

²⁶ Augustine’s Seventh Question: “How should we interact with the bishops of Gaul and Britain?”

²⁷ Gregory answers: “We do not grant you authority over the bishops of Gaul because the bishop of Arles has long held authority in that region, receiving the pallium in ancient times from my predecessors. It would not be right to take from him the authority he has been given. Therefore, if you travel to Gaul, you should work in cooperation with the bishop of Arles to address any faults among the bishops there. If he is slow to enforce discipline, let your zeal inspire him to act. We have also written to him, urging him to make full use of your presence in Gaul and to work diligently in correcting anything in the bishops’ conduct that is contrary to God’s commandments.

²⁸ However, you do not have jurisdiction to pass judgment over the bishops of Gaul. Instead, by persuasion, encouragement, and the example of good works, you must guide those who have gone astray back to holiness. As it is written in the Law: “When you enter your neighbor’s standing grain, you may pluck the heads with your hand, but you must not wield a sickle on your neighbor’s standing grain”. This means you may not use the sickle of judgment in a field that has been entrusted to another. Instead, through the influence of your good works, you should help separate the Lord’s wheat from the chaff of sin, leading them back to righteousness through exhortation and persuasion, as one who eats from the field rather than harvesting it by force.

²⁹ Any actions requiring authority in Gaul must be carried out in cooperation with the bishop of Arles, so that nothing is done contrary to the long-standing traditions of the Church.

³⁰ As for the bishops of Britain, we entrust them entirely to your care. Teach those who are ignorant, strengthen the weak through encouragement, and correct the wayward with firm authority.

³¹ Augustine’s Eighth Question: “Should a pregnant woman be baptized? After childbirth, how long must she wait before entering the church? How soon may the newborn be baptized to prevent death from intervening? When may her husband resume marital relations with her? Is it lawful for a woman to enter the church or receive Holy Communion while menstruating? May a man enter the church or receive the Holy Communion before washing with water under certain circumstances? These matters are important for the instruction of the newly converted English people.”

³² Gregory answers: “I do not doubt that these questions have been put to you, my brother, and I believe I have already addressed them. However, I understand that you wish to have your own opinion confirmed by my response as well. Why should a pregnant woman not be baptized, since the fruitfulness of the flesh is not offensive in the sight of Almighty God? When our first parents sinned in Paradise, they lost the immortality they had received through the just judgment of God. Yet, because Almighty God did not wish to destroy the human race entirely on account of their sin, He took away immortality as a consequence of their fault but, in His great goodness and loving-kindness, still granted them the ability to propagate their race. On what basis, then, can that which God, in His mercy, has preserved for human nature be excluded from the privilege of Holy Baptism? It is utterly foolish to think that God’s gift could be opposed to grace in the sacrament where all sin is washed away.

³³ When a woman has given birth, you have learned from the teaching of the Old Testament that she is to abstain for thirty-three days after bearing a male child and sixty-six days after bearing a female. However, you must understand that this is to be received as a mystery. If she enters the church immediately after giving birth to offer thanks, she commits no sin, for it is the pleasure of the flesh that is sinful, not the pain. Pleasure is found in the act of conception, whereas pain accompanies childbirth. Therefore, it was said to the first mother of all: “In sorrow you will bring forth children”. If we were to forbid a woman who has given birth from entering the church, we would be treating her very punishment as a crime. As for baptism, if there is danger of death, neither the woman who has given birth nor the child she has borne should be denied it, even in the very hour of birth. Just as the grace of the Holy Mystery must be administered with great care to those who are in full health and capable of understanding, so too must it be given without delay to the dying. Otherwise, if time is spent seeking a more convenient moment for the sacrament of redemption, even a brief delay may result in the loss of the soul that was to be saved.

³⁴ A husband should not approach his wife until the infant she has borne is weaned. An evil custom has arisen among married people, whereby women refuse to nurse the children they give birth to and instead hand them over to others for nursing. This practice appears to have been introduced for no other reason than incontinence—for as they refuse to practice self-restraint, they also refuse to nurse the children they bear. Therefore, women who, out of this harmful custom, give their children to others to be raised must not approach their husbands until the time of purification has passed. Even apart from childbirth, women are forbidden from being approached by their husbands while they are in their time of monthly impurity, for the Law itself condemns to death any man who comes near a woman during her uncleanness.

³⁵ Yet a woman must not be forbidden from entering the church while she has her courses, for the natural functions of the body cannot be counted as a sin, nor is it just that she should be denied entry for something she suffers unwillingly. We know that the woman who had an issue of blood approached our Lord humbly from behind and touched the hem of His garment, and immediately her infirmity left her. If she, while afflicted with an issue of blood, was worthy to touch the garment of the Lord, why should a woman experiencing her courses not lawfully enter the church of God? But you may argue that her affliction compelled her, whereas those we speak of are bound by custom. Consider, then, dearest brother, that all the sufferings we endure in this mortal flesh—whether hunger, thirst, heat, cold, or weariness—come from the frailty of our nature, which was ordained by the just judgment of God after the fall. Just as we seek food against hunger, drink against thirst, air against heat, clothing against cold, and rest against weariness, so too are a woman’s courses a natural infirmity. If it was praiseworthy for that woman, in her affliction, to touch our Lord’s garment, then why should what was permitted to one suffering from infirmity not be granted to all women who, through the weakness of their nature, are likewise afflicted?

³⁶ Therefore, a woman must not be forbidden from receiving the Mystery of the Holy Communion during those days. However, if anyone, out of deep reverence, chooses to abstain, she is to be commended; yet if she receives it, she is not to be judged. For it is the mark of noble souls to acknowledge fault in some way, even when there is no fault—because often something is done without sin, yet its very cause stems from sin. For example, it is not a sin to eat when we are hungry, yet our hunger itself arises from the sin of the first man. Likewise, a woman’s courses are not a sin, as they occur naturally; yet because human nature is so corrupted that it appears defiled even without an act of the will, this defect serves as a reminder of sin. Thus, human nature may recognize what it has become under divine judgment, and man, who committed sin by his own will, must bear its consequences against his will.

³⁷ Therefore, let women examine themselves, and if they choose, out of reverence, to refrain from approaching the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of our Lord during their courses, they are to be commended for their praiseworthy discretion. However, if they are moved by love for this Mystery and wish to receive it according to the custom of the religious life, they should not be forbidden, as we have already said. For in the Old Testament, outward observances were strictly upheld, whereas in the New Testament, what is outwardly done is not judged as rigorously as what is inwardly thought, so that punishment may be applied with discernment. While the Law forbade the eating of many things as unclean, our Lord says in the Gospel: “What goes into someone’s mouth does not defile them, but what comes out of their mouth, that is what defiles them.”. He then explains further: “Out of the heart proceed evil thoughts”. Here it is clearly shown that what Almighty God considers truly defiled in action comes from the root of a corrupt thought. This is why the Apostle Paul also says: “To the pure, all things are pure, but to those who are defiled and unbelieving, nothing is pure”. And immediately, explaining the reason for this defilement, he adds: “For even their mind and conscience is defiled”. If, therefore, food is not unclean to one whose mind is pure, why should a woman’s natural condition, suffered with a clean conscience, be counted as uncleanness?

³⁸ A man who has had relations with his wife should not enter the church unless he has first washed with water, nor should he enter immediately even after washing. The Law commanded the ancient people that in such cases a man should cleanse himself with water and not enter the congregation before sunset. However, this may also be understood spiritually, for a man is in the same condition when his mind is led by imagination into unlawful desire. Unless the fire of concupiscence is first extinguished from his heart, he should not consider himself worthy to join the assembly of the brethren while he remains burdened by the iniquity of a disordered will. Though different nations hold various opinions on this matter and follow different customs, it has always been the practice of the Romans, from ancient times, for such a man to purify himself by washing and to refrain for a time from entering the church out of reverence. In saying this, we do not condemn matrimony as a fault; yet, because lawful intercourse cannot occur without the pleasure of the flesh, it is fitting to abstain from entering the holy place, since pleasure itself cannot be without fault. For He who was not born of adultery or fornication, but of lawful marriage, declared: “Behold, I was conceived in iniquity, and in sin my mother brought me forth”. In these words, however, he does not call the union of a married couple iniquity, but rather refers to the will itself, acknowledging that human nature, corrupted from its root, bears its defect just as a tree bears in its branches the sap it draws from the root.

³⁹ For there are many things that are lawful and permitted, yet in doing them, we still experience some degree of defilement. Often, in correcting faults, we become angry, and while our action may be just, our own peace of mind is disturbed. Even though what we do is right, it is still not ideal that our soul should be troubled. For the one who said, “My eye was disturbed with anger”, was angry at the vices of sinners. However, since only a tranquil mind can dwell in the light of contemplation, he lamented that his vision was clouded by anger; for while he was correcting evil actions in the world below, he found himself distracted and unsettled in his contemplation of higher things. Thus, anger against vice is commendable, yet it remains burdensome to a man, for he feels that in the agitation of his mind, he has incurred some measure of guilt.

⁴⁰ Lawful marital relations must be for the sake of children, not for pleasure, and must be undertaken to produce offspring, not to indulge vice. However, if a man is motivated not by desire for pleasure but solely by the intent to beget children, he is certainly to be left to his own judgment regarding whether to enter the church or receive the Mystery of the Body and Blood of our Lord. For one who, being placed in the fire, does not burn is not to be forbidden from receiving the Sacrament. But when it is not the desire for children but the pursuit of pleasure that dominates, the couple has reason to mourn their action. For although holy teaching grants them this concession, it does so in a way that instills fear of the very permission itself. As the Apostle Paul said, “Let him that cannot contain have his own wife”, yet he immediately added, “But this I say by way of permission, not of commandment”. That which is entirely lawful, because it is just, does not require mere permission; therefore, in stating that he permitted it, he revealed that it is, in some way, a failing.

⁴¹ It must be seriously considered that when God was about to speak to the people on Mount Sinai, He first commanded them to abstain from women. If bodily purity was so strictly required when God spoke to the people through a created mediator, so that those who were to hear His words must first abstain, how much more should women, who receive the very Body of Almighty God, preserve themselves in purity of flesh, in case they be burdened by the immense weight of so great a Mystery? For this reason, it was also said to David by the priest that his men could receive the showbread only if they were clean in this regard. They would not have been permitted to partake at all had David not first affirmed their purity. In the same way, a man who has later purified himself with water is also permitted to receive the Mystery of the Holy Communion when, according to the regulations previously stated, it is lawful for him to enter the church.

⁴² Augustine’s Ninth Question: “Whether, after experiencing an illusion, such as one that occurs in a dream, a person may receive the Body of our Lord, or, if he is a priest, celebrate the Divine Mysteries”.

⁴³ Gregory answers: “The Testament of the Old Law, as has already been stated in the previous section, considers such a man unclean and forbids him from entering the church until evening, after he has washed with water. However, a spiritual people, interpreting this in a different sense, will understand it in the same way as before—because a person is, as it were, deceived in a dream when, being tempted by impurity, he is defiled by real images in thought. He must be washed with water, cleansing the sins of his thoughts with tears; and unless the fire of temptation passes away beforehand, he must recognize himself as, in a sense, guilty until evening. However, it is crucial to make a distinction in such an illusion and to carefully consider what causes it to arise in the mind of the sleeper, for sometimes it results from excessive eating or drinking, sometimes from the body’s natural excess or weakness, and sometimes from the thoughts themselves.

⁴⁴ And when such an illusion arises either from the body’s natural excess or its weakness, it is not to be feared at all; rather, it is to be lamented that the mind of the person, who was entirely unaware of it, suffers from it rather than having caused it. However, when the appetite of gluttony indulges in excess, and as a result, the body’s humors become disturbed, the mind incurs some guilt—though not to the extent of preventing the reception of the Holy Mystery or the celebration of Mass when a holy day requires it, or when necessity demands that the Mystery be made manifest due to the absence of another priest. If there are others available to perform the ministry, then an illusion arising from overindulgence in food should not prevent a person from receiving the sacred Mystery. However, I believe he should humbly refrain from offering the sacrifice of the Mystery, though not from receiving it—unless his mind, during sleep, has been disturbed by impure imaginations. For there are some who experience such illusions yet remain untainted by sinful thoughts even while their body sleeps. In such cases, one thing is clear: the mind is guilty if it does not acquit itself even in its own judgment. For although a person may not recall seeing anything impure while sleeping, he remembers that, when awake, he had succumbed to gluttony. But if the sleeper’s illusion arises from impure thoughts he had while awake, then the guilt is evident to his conscience, for he recognizes the source of his defilement: what he had consciously entertained in thought, he later unconsciously endured. However, it must be carefully examined whether such a thought was merely a suggestion, whether it led to delight, or—what is worse—whether it resulted in consent to sin.

⁴⁵ For all sin is committed in three ways: by suggestion, by delight, and by consent. Suggestion comes from the Devil, delight from the flesh, and consent from the spirit. For the serpent suggested the first sin, Eve, as the flesh, took delight in it, and Adam, as the spirit, consented. When the mind examines itself, it must carefully distinguish between suggestion and delight, and between delight and consent. If the evil spirit suggests sin to the mind and there is no delight in it, then no sin has been committed. But when the flesh begins to take pleasure in it, sin begins to arise. If the will then deliberately consents, the sin is fully realized. Thus, the seed of sin is in suggestion, its nourishment in delight, and its maturity in consent.

⁴⁶ Yet, it often happens that what the evil spirit sows in thought, the flesh begins to take delight in, while the soul does not consent to that delight. And although the flesh cannot experience pleasure without the mind, the mind, resisting the desires of the flesh, may find itself unwillingly entangled in carnal delight—so that, even while reason opposes it and refuses consent, it still grieves at being bound by it. Therefore, that great soldier in the army of the Lord groaned and said, “I see another law in my members warring against the law of my mind and bringing me into captivity to the law of sin, which is in my members”. If he was a captive, he could not have fought—but he did fight. Therefore, he was both captive and fighting at the same time. He was captive to the law in his members, which opposed the law of his mind, and yet, if he fought, he was not truly captive. Thus, man is, in a way, both captive and free—free because of the justice he loves, yet captive to the pleasure he unwillingly bears within him.

Chapter 28: 601 A.D. #

¹ Thus far are the responses of the holy Pope Gregory to the questions of the most reverend prelate, Augustine. Now, the letter which he mentioned having written to the Bishop of Arles was addressed to Vergilius, the successor of Aetherius, and was as follows:

² “To his most reverend and holy brother and fellow bishop, Vergilius, Gregory, servant of the servants of God.

³ The kindness with which brethren who come of their own accord should be received is evident from the fact that they are often invited out of brotherly love. Therefore, if our common brother, Bishop Augustine, happens to come to you, let your love receive him with such great kindness and affection as is fitting, so that he may be refreshed by the comfort of your hospitality and that others may see how brotherly charity should be practiced.

⁴ And since it often happens that those who are at a distance first hear from others about matters in need of correction, if he brings before you, my brother, any offenses committed by bishops or others, then you should carefully investigate these matters together with him. Show yourself so firm and diligent in addressing those things that offend God and provoke His wrath, that the guilty may be punished for the correction of others, while the innocent do not suffer under false accusations.

⁵ May God keep you safe, most reverend brother.”

⁶ Given on the 22nd of June, in the nineteenth year of the reign of our most religious lord, Mauritius Tiberius Augustus, the eighteenth year after his consulship, and the fourth indiction.

Chapter 29: 601 A.D. #

¹ Moreover, the same Pope Gregory, upon hearing from Bishop Augustine that the harvest was great but the laborers were few, sent him additional fellow workers and ministers of the Word along with his previously mentioned envoys. The chief among them were Mellitus, Justus, Paulinus, and Rufinianus. Through them, he also sent everything necessary for the worship and service of the Church, including sacred vessels, altar cloths, church furnishings, and vestments for bishops and clerics, as well as relics of the holy Apostles and martyrs, along with many manuscripts.

² He also sent a letter in which he informed Augustine that he had dispatched the pallium to him and provided instructions on how he should establish bishops in Britain. The letter was as follows:

³ “To his most reverend and holy brother and fellow bishop, Augustine, Gregory, servant of the servants of God.

⁴ Although it is certain that the indescribable rewards of the eternal kingdom are reserved for those who labor for Almighty God, it is nevertheless fitting that we bestow upon them the benefit of honors, so that by this recognition, they may be encouraged to devote themselves even more zealously to their spiritual work. And since, by the grace of the Lord and through your efforts, the new Church of the English has been brought to His favor, we grant you the use of the pallium within it, but only for the solemn celebration of the Mass. Furthermore, you are to ordain twelve bishops in various places, who shall be subject to your jurisdiction.

⁵ But the bishop of London shall, in the future, always be consecrated by his own synod and shall receive the pallium, the sign of his office, from this holy and Apostolic See, which I now serve by the grace of God. As for the city of York, we desire that you send there a bishop whom you judge fit to ordain. If that city, along with the surrounding regions, receives the Word of God, then that bishop shall likewise ordain twelve bishops and shall hold the dignity of a metropolitan. For, if the Lord grants us life, we intend, with His help, to bestow upon him also the pallium. However, during your lifetime, my brother, he shall remain subject to your authority; but after your passing, he shall preside over the bishops he has ordained without being subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of London.

⁶ In matters of honor, let this distinction be observed between the bishops of London and York: precedence shall belong to whichever of them was first ordained. Nevertheless, let them consult together, act in harmony, and with one mind arrange whatever is to be done for the zeal of Christ. Let them judge rightly and carry out their decisions without discord.

⁷ But to you, my brother, by the authority of our God and Lord Jesus Christ, shall be subject not only the bishops whom you ordain and those ordained by the bishop of York, but also all the prelates in Britain. This is so that, through the words and example of your Holiness, they may learn the rule of right belief and a virtuous life, and, fulfilling their office in faith and righteousness, may, when it pleases the Lord, attain the kingdom of Heaven.

⁸ May God keep you safe, most reverend brother.”

⁹ Given on the 22nd of June, in the nineteenth year of the reign of our most devout lord, Mauritius Tiberius Augustus, which is the eighteenth year after his consulship, in the fourth indiction.

Chapter 30: 601 A.D. #

¹ The aforementioned envoys having departed, the blessed Father Gregory sent after them a letter worthy of being recorded, in which he clearly demonstrates his diligent concern for the salvation of our land. The letter was as follows:

² “To his most beloved son, Abbot Mellitus. Gregory, servant of the servants of God.

³ Since the departure of our brethren who are with you, we have been greatly concerned, as we have received no report regarding the success of your journey. Nevertheless, when Almighty God brings you to our most reverend brother, Bishop Augustine, convey to him what I have long considered in my heart regarding the English people.

⁴ Namely, that the temples of their idols should not be destroyed, but rather the idols themselves should be removed. Let holy water be blessed and sprinkled within these temples, altars erected, and relics placed there. If these buildings are well-constructed, they should be converted from places of demonic worship into houses dedicated to the true God. In this way, the people, seeing that their temples remain standing, will abandon their errors more readily and, while continuing to gather in familiar places, will come to know and worship the true God with greater willingness.

⁵ Furthermore, since they are accustomed to sacrificing many oxen to their false gods, they should be provided with a Christian festival in place of this practice. On the day of a church’s dedication or on the feast days of the holy martyrs whose relics are enshrined there, they should construct shelters made of tree branches around the church—just as they once did for their pagan rites—and celebrate the occasion with religious feasting. However, instead of offering animals in sacrifice to demons, they should slaughter cattle for food, glorify God in their festivities, and give thanks to Him as the provider of all things. By allowing them to retain some of their former customs in an acceptable manner, they will more easily embrace the inner joys of the true faith.

⁶ For there is no doubt that it is impossible to remove everything at once from those of a rough and unrefined nature. One who seeks to ascend to the highest place must rise gradually, step by step, rather than by sudden leaps.

⁷ Thus, when the Lord made Himself known to the people of Israel in Egypt, He permitted them to continue using, in His worship, the same sacrifices they had previously offered to the Devil. He commanded them to sacrifice animals to Him so that, while their hearts were being transformed, they might abandon one part of their former practice while retaining another. Although they continued to offer the same kinds of animals, they were now presenting them to the true God rather than to idols—thus changing the very nature of the sacrifice.

⁸ Therefore, my dearly beloved son, you must communicate this to our aforementioned brother, so that, in the position in which he now stands, he may consider carefully how to arrange all things wisely.

⁹ May God keep you safe, my most beloved son.

¹⁰ Given on the 17th of June, in the year 133, in the nineteenth year of the reign of our most devout lord, Mauritius Tiberius Augustus, which is the eighteenth year after his consulship, in the fourth indiction.

Chapter 31: 601 A.D. #

¹ At that time, he also sent Augustine a letter regarding the miracles he had heard were performed through him. In it, he warned him not to fall into the danger of pride because of their number. The letter was as follows:

² “I know, dearly beloved brother, that Almighty God is working great miracles through you among the nation He has chosen to bring to Himself. Therefore, you must rejoice with fear and fear with joy regarding this heavenly gift. Rejoice, because the souls of the English are being drawn from outward signs to inward grace. But fear, lest, amid these miracles, a weak heart might be lifted up with pride, and that which outwardly brings honor may inwardly cause a fall through vanity.

³ We must remember that when the disciples returned joyfully from preaching and said to their Heavenly Master, “Lord, even the devils are subject to us through Your Name”, they were immediately given this reply: “Do not rejoice in this, but rather rejoice because your names are written in heaven”. For their minds were set on personal and temporary joys when they rejoiced in miracles. But they were called away from private joy to a shared joy, and from what is fleeting to what is eternal, when they were told to rejoice instead in the security of their names being written in heaven.

⁴ For not all of God’s chosen ones perform miracles, and yet the names of all the elect are inscribed in heaven. The true disciples of Christ should take joy only in that which is a blessing for all and in which their joy will be everlasting.

⁵ Therefore, my most dear brother, as you carry out these outward works through the power of the Lord, you must always examine yourself carefully in your heart. Reflect on who you truly are and how great a grace has been granted to this nation, for whose conversion you have even received the gift of working miracles.

⁶ If ever you recall having sinned against our Creator, whether in word or deed, keep it always in mind, so that the remembrance of your guilt may humble you and crush any vanity that may arise in your heart. And whatever gift of miracles you have received or may yet receive, regard it not as something given for your own sake, but for the sake of those whose salvation it has been entrusted to you to serve.

Chapter 32: 601 A.D. #

¹ At that same time, the blessed Pope Gregory also sent a letter to King Ethelbert, along with many gifts of various kinds. Desiring to honor the king with earthly rewards, he also rejoiced that, through his own effort and devotion, Ethelbert had come to the knowledge of heavenly glory. The copy of the letter is as follows:

² “To the most glorious lord and his most excellent son, Ethelbert, King of the English, Bishop Gregory.

³ Almighty God raises good men to rule over nations so that through them He may bestow the gifts of His loving-kindness upon those they govern. We see this fulfilled in the English nation, over whom your Highness has been placed, so that through the blessings granted to you, heavenly benefits may also be extended to your people.

⁴ Therefore, my illustrious son, guard carefully the grace you have received from God’s goodness, and strive earnestly to spread the Christian faith among those under your rule. Pursue their conversion with all diligence and sincerity. Suppress the worship of idols, tear down the structures of the temples, and establish your people in a life of purity and virtue. By exhorting, warning, persuading, correcting, and providing an example of good works, may you lead them to righteousness, so that you may receive your reward in heaven from Him whose Name and knowledge you have made known on earth.

⁵ For He, whose honor you seek and uphold among the nations, will also make your Majesty’s name more glorious, even for generations to come.

⁶ “Just as the most pious Emperor Constantine of old restored the Roman commonwealth from the false worship of idols and brought it, along with himself, into submission to Almighty God, our Lord Jesus Christ, turning to Him with his whole heart together with the nations under his rule, so his praises surpassed the fame of earlier rulers, and he exceeded his predecessors in renown as much as in good deeds. Therefore, let Your Highness hasten to make known to the kings and peoples under your rule the truth of the one God—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—so that you may surpass the ancient kings of your nation in both praise and merit. And as you lead your subjects to the remission of their sins, you yourself will stand with greater confidence before the dread judgment of Almighty God, freed from greater anxiety concerning your own sins.

⁷ Willingly listen, devoutly follow, and carefully commit to memory whatever counsel is given to you by our most reverend brother, Bishop Augustine, who has been trained in the monastic rule, is full of the knowledge of Holy Scripture, and, by God’s grace, is adorned with good works. For if you heed him when he speaks on behalf of Almighty God, then Almighty God will the more readily hear his prayers for you. But if (which God forbid!) you disregard his words, how shall Almighty God hear him on your behalf when you refuse to hear him on behalf of God? Therefore, unite yourself to him with all your heart, in the fervor of faith, and support his efforts with the strength that God has given you, so that He may make you a sharer in His kingdom—the very faith of which you labor to establish and preserve among your own people.

⁸ Moreover, we wish Your Highness to know that, as we read in Holy Scripture from the words of the Almighty Lord, the end of this present world is near, and the kingdom of the saints, which will never end, is at hand. But as the end approaches, many things will come upon us that have not been seen before—namely, changes in the air, terrors from heaven, unseasonable storms, wars, famines, pestilences, and earthquakes in various places. Yet not all these things will happen in our own days, but they will continue after us. Therefore, if you witness any of these events in your land, do not let your heart be troubled, for these signs of the world’s end are given to us in advance so that we may be mindful of our souls, remain watchful for the hour of death, and be found ready with good works to meet our Judge. This, my illustrious son, I have briefly set forth, intending that when the Christian faith spreads more widely in your kingdom, we may address you more fully, and our words may increase in proportion to the joy we feel at the full conversion of your people.

⁹ I have sent you some small gifts, which will not seem small to you when received with the blessing of the blessed Apostle Peter. May Almighty God bring to perfection in you the grace He has begun, grant you a long life on earth, and, in the fullness of time, welcome you into the assembly of the heavenly kingdom. May the grace of God keep you safe, my most excellent lord and son.”

¹⁰ Given on the 22nd day of June, in the nineteenth year of the reign of our most devout lord, Mauritius Tiberius Augustus, the eighteenth year after his consulship, and the fourth indiction.

Chapter 33 #

¹ Augustine, having been granted his episcopal see in the royal city, as previously mentioned, restored there, with the support of the king, a church that he was informed had been built long ago by the faithful among the Romans. He consecrated it in the name of the Holy Saviour, our Divine Lord Jesus Christ, and established it as a residence for himself and all his successors. He also founded a monastery to the east of the city, where, following his counsel, Ethelbert built from its foundations the church of the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul and enriched it with various gifts. This church was intended as the burial place for Augustine himself, as well as for all the bishops of Canterbury and the kings of Kent. However, it was not Augustine who consecrated the church, but his successor, Laurentius.

² The first abbot of that monastery was the priest Peter, who, while on a mission to Gaul, was drowned in a bay of the sea called Amfleat. The local inhabitants buried him in a humble grave, but it was the will of Almighty God to reveal his holiness, for a heavenly light was seen shining over his tomb every night. When the people of the area witnessed this, they realized that a holy man had been buried there. Upon inquiring about his identity and origin, they took up his body and reinterred it with due honor in a church in the city of Boulogne.

Chapter 34: 603 A.D. #

¹ The first abbot of that monastery was the priest Peter, who, while on a mission to Gaul, was drowned in a bay of the sea called Amfleat. The local inhabitants buried him in a humble grave, but it was the will of Almighty God to reveal his holiness, for a heavenly light was seen shining over his tomb every night. When the people of the area witnessed this, they realized that a holy man had been buried there. Upon inquiring about his identity and origin, they took up his body and reinterred it with due honor in a church in the city of Boulogne.

² At this time, the bold and ambitious King Ethelfrid ruled the kingdom of the Northumbrians and harassed the Britons more fiercely than any other English leader, so much so that he might be likened to Saul of old, king of Israel—except that he was ignorant of the true faith. He conquered more land from the Britons than any other chieftain or king, either subjugating the inhabitants and making them pay tribute or driving them out and settling the English in their place. Of him, the words of the patriarch in blessing his son through Saul might justly be applied: “Benjamin is a ravenous wolf; in the morning he devours the prey, and in the evening he divides the spoil”.

³ Alarmed by Ethelfrid’s growing power, Aedan, king of the Scots who dwelt in Britain, marched against him with a great and powerful army. However, he was utterly defeated and fled with only a few followers, for nearly all his forces were slain in a famous battle at a place called Degsastan, or Degsa’s Stone. In this battle, Theodbald, Ethelfrid’s brother, was also killed, along with almost all the men under his command. Ethelfrid concluded this war in the year of our Lord 603, the eleventh year of his reign, which lasted twenty-four years, and the first year of Phocas, who then ruled the Roman Empire. From that time onward, no king of the Scots dared to invade Britain to wage war against the English.